PRACTICAL 
AGRICULTURE 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE 

A   BRIEF   TREATISE 

ON 

AGRICULTURE,    HORTICULTURE,    FORESTRY, 

STOCK  FEEDING,  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY, 

AND  ROAD   BUILDING 


BY 
JOHN  W.    WILKINSON,   A.M. 

ASSISTANT    STATE    SUPERINTENDENT    OF    EDUCATION,    OKLAHOMA 

FORMERLY   PROFESSOR    OF    AGRICULTURE    IN    NORTHWESTERN 

NORMAL   SCHOOL,   ALVA,   OKLAHOMA 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1909,  BY 
JOHN  W.  WILKINSON. 
ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL,  LONDON. 


PREFACE 

ALTHOUGH  the  advanced  work  in  agricultural  education  has  long 
been  provided  for  in  both  Europe  and  America  by  Colleges  and 
Chairs  in  some  of  the  Universities,  it  is  only  of  recent  years  that 
the  public  has  awakened  to  the  pressing  need  of  practical  agricul- 
tural instruction  in  our  public  schools. 

The  demand  for  this  work  is  growing  stronger  and  stronger  all 
the  time,  and  wherever  the  subject  of  agriculture  has  been  taught 
in  the  public  schools  the  results  have  been  highly  satisfactory. 
President  Koosevelt,  through  the  National  Commission  on  Country 
Life,  aroused  a  great  deal  of  interest  in  country  life  and  country 
social  conditions  which  is  finding  expression  in  many  ways.  Our 
whole  nation  is  beginning  to  realize  the  need  of  better  rural  schools 
and  more  practical  instruction. 

The  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  for  the  Country  Com- 
munities appointed  by  the  National  Educational  Association  in 
1905  struck  the  keynote  when  it  said:  "The  country  schools,  which 
train  nearly  one  half  of  the  school  population  of  this  country  so  far 
as  school  training  goes,  should  definitely  recognize  the  fact  that  the 
major  portion  of  those  being  trained  will  continue  to  live  upon 
the  farm;  and  that  there  should  be  specific,  definite  technical  train- 
ing fitting  them  for  the  activities  of  farm  life.  Such  schools  will 
not  make  farmers  nor  housekeepers,  but  they  will  interest  the  boys 
and  girls  in  farming  and  housekeeping  and  the  problems  connected 
with  these  two  important  vocations." 

Likewise  it  is  no  less  important  that  pupils  in  our  city  schools 
should  receive  some  instruction  in  agriculture  so  that  they  may 
have  a  proper  conception  of  the  country  and  the  opportunities  they 
might  enjoy  there  which  would  be  denied  them  in  the  city. 

The  tendency  of  our  ambitious  young  people  to  collect  in  the 
cities  and  large  centers  of  population  is  fraught  with  the  gravest 
danger.  In  the  country  there  are  health,  wealth,  and  happiness, 

8 

216048 


4  PREFACE 

and  our  young  people  in  the  cities  must  be  made  to  realize  this 
fact.  The  solid  and  substantial  wealth  of  our  nation  comes  from 
the  country  and  not  from  the  city,  but  this  hard-earned  wealth  pro- 
duced on  the  farms  is  being  nearly  all  diverted  to  the  improvement 
of  cities  and  city  institutions,  instead  of  being  used  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  country  and  its  institutions.  The  time  is  now  at  hand 
when  there  must  be  an  organized  and  determined  effort  to  correct 
this  condition,  for  we  need  strong  and  brainy  people  in  the  country, 
and  they  are  entitled  to  the  same  comforts  and  conveniences  as  are 
enjoyed  by  those  living  in  the  city. 

Further,  aside  from  its  practical  value,  we  should  not  lose  sight 
of  the  fact  that  agriculture  may  be  made  an  aid  to  other  school 
work  in  many  ways.  Mathematics  will  be  applied  in  the  use  of 
weights  and  measures,  while  the  principles  of  percentage  and  pro- 
portion will  enter  into  the  solution  of  nearly  every  problem  in  soils. 
Composition  will  lose  some  of  its  bad  flavor,  and  spelling  will  no 
longer  be  distasteful  when  applied  to  the  description  of  experiments 
in  which  the  pupils  are  interested.  Manual  training  will  find  ex- 
pression in  the  making  of  boxes,  labels,  farm  levels,  and  many  other 
appliances  used  in  various  experiments.  Some  of  the  principles 
of  botany,  physics,  chemistry,  and  zoology  will  be  learned  and 
applied  in  their  study  with  soils,  plants,  and  animals.  When 
handled  in  this  way,  all  of  the  work  will  leave  a  more  lasting  im- 
pression, because  it  is  concrete,  and  at  the  same  time  it  will  be 
more  interesting  because  it  is  connected  with  the  life  and  occupation 
of  the  pupils. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work,  the  author  has  tried  to  keep  con- 
stantly in  mind  the  needs  of  the  student  as  well  as  the  facilities 
at  the  disposal  of  the  teacher  for  making  the  instruction  practical 
and  available.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  exhaust  the  various 
topics  treated,  and  in  every  instance  abundant  latitude  is  given  the 
instructor  to  show  his  own  individuality  in  developing  and  carrying 

out  the  ideas  suggested  by  the  text. 

JOHN   W.    WILKINSON, 

Assistant  ^Superintendent. 
STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION, 
GUTHRIE,  OKLAHOMA. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I.  COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  FARMING 

II.  THE  HISTORY  or  AGRICULTURE 

III.  AIR  AND  SUNLIGHT     ........ 

IV.  WATER 

V.  THE  SOIL 

VI.  SOIL  INGREDIENTS       ........ 

VII.  TYPES  OF  SOIL 

VIII.  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  SOIL        .... 

IX.  SOIL  MOISTURE  ......... 

X.  DRAINAGE  AND  VENTILATION     ...... 

XL  TILLAGE 

XII.  ORDINARY  TOOLS  AND  IMPLEMENTS  FOR  SOIL  PREPARATION 

XIII.  THE  PLANT 

XIV.  CEREALS  OR  GRAINS  .         .         .         .         . 

XV.  WHEAT 

XVI.  OATS  AND  OTHER  CEREAL  CROPS      .         .... 

XVII.  FORAGE  CROPS 

XVIII.  ROOT  CROPS  AND  THE  TURNIP  FAMILY     .... 

XIX.  TUBER  CROPS 

XX.  FIBER-PRODUCING  PLANTS 

XXI.  ANIMAL  FIBERS 

XXII.  ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

XXIII.  FERTILIZERS         ......... 

XXIV.  ORGANS  OF  VEGETATION 

XXV.  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS    ....... 

XXVI.  IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS 

XXVII.  FRIENDS  AND  ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS — 1.    PLANT  FORMS    . 

XXVIII.  FRIENDS  AND  ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS  —  2.    ANIMAL  FORMS 

XXIX.  HORTICULTURE 

XXX.  SPECIAL  HERB  AND  LEAF  CROPS       ..... 

5 


PAGE 

7 

10 

13 

20 

24 

30 

33 

39 

43 

50 

56 

59 

63 

68 

77 

85 

93 

104 

108 

111 

120 

124 

128 

139 

148 

158 

167 

179 

192 

202 


6 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

PAOR 

XXXI. 

SMALL  FRUIT  CROPS        .        .        . 

.     207 

XXXII. 

.     214 

XXXIII. 

ORCHARD  CROPS       

.     218 

XXXIV. 

NUT  CROPS       

.    229 

XXXV. 

FLOWER  GARDENING         .... 

.     235 

XXXVI. 

Civic  IMPROVEMENT        .... 

.     242 

XXXVII. 

.     251 

XXXVIII. 

FORESTRY         

.     259 

XXXIX. 

.    266 

XL. 

.    277 

XLI. 

FUEL  AND  LIGHT     

.     285 

XLII. 

STOCK  FEEDING        

.     291 

XLIII. 

ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY        .... 

.     802 

XLIV. 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS          .... 

.     309 

XLV. 

.    341 

APPENDIX 

.        . 

.     355 

GLOSSARY 

.    875 

,    379 

PEACTICAL   AGRICULTURE 


I.     COUNTRY   LIFE   AND   FARMING 

MANY  young  people  dislike  country  life  and  think  that  they 
would  be  happier  living  in  cities ;  but  if  their  desires  were  realized, 
they  would  often  find  themselves  somewhat  disappointed.  In 
the  country  there  is  plenty  of  pure  fresh  air,  abundance  of  sun- 
light, and  plenty  of  room  for  exercise  and  development,  while  the 
reverse  is  often  true  of  our  large  centers  of  population. 

On  account  of  the  height  of  the  buildings  in  some  portions 
of  our  large  cities  but  little  sunlight  can  find  its  way  into  the 
living  rooms.  In  the  tenement  districts  the  homes  are  often 
overcrowded,  and  it  is  not  unusual  for  one  to  find  whole  families 
living  in  a  single  room. 

In  the  country  there  is  always  plenty  of  room,  and  such  cramped 
conditions  of  living  are  never  necessary.  In  fact,  there  are  many 
reasons  why  we  should  prefer  country  life  to  city  life,  and  why 
we  should  look  upon  farming  as  a  most  desirable  calling.  Upon 
farming,  other  occupations  very  largely  depend  for  food  and  sup- 
plies. Of  course  there  is  a  vast  difference  between  good  farming 
and  the  growing  of  crops  in  a  haphazard  way.  People  seem  to 
think  that  crops  can  care  for  themselves  after  the  seed  is  planted, 
and  that  the  farmer's  business  is  to  cultivate  the  soil,  destroy  the 
weeds,  and  grow  food  enough  for  his  own  use.  Were  this  true, 
farming  would  be  very  simple,  and  any  one  without  training  or 
experience  could  be  a  successful  farmer.  Farming  is  something 
more  than  the  mere  production  of  raw  food  materials  from  the 
soil.  It  is  concerned  not  only  with  the  growing  of  the  staple 
grain,  forage,  and  fiber  crops,  and  the  raising  of  stock,  but  also 
with  the  general  management  of  lands  and  farms.  Each  kind 
of  crop  grown  removes  certain  elements  from  the  soil  necessary 
for  plant  growth,  and  if  the  crop  is  taken  away  from  the  farm, 

7 


8  COUNTRY  LIFE   AND   FARMING 

the  soil  is  depleted  and  becomes  less  and  less  productive  each 
succeeding  year.  The  crops  gradually  decrease  until  they  be- 
come unprofitable,  and  finally  the  land  is  abandoned.  That  is 
generally  the  result  with  unscientific  farming  where  the  farmer 
looks  upon  the  land  as  an  inexhaustible  mine  or  reservoir  upon 
which  he  may  draw  without  any  thought  of  the  future. 

The  skillful  farmer  treats  the  land  as  a  factory,  and  supplies 
the  necessary  crude  elements  as  fast  as  they  are  transformed  into 


In  the  country  there  is  plenty  of  room. 


crops,  thus  keeping  the  land  at  the  height  of  fertility.  There  is 
skill  in  farming  as  much  as  in  any  other  occupation,  and  the 
more  we  reflect  on  the  question,  the  more  we  are  compelled  to 
admit  the  necessity  for  studying  the  science  of  farming. 

In  its  broad  sense  this  science  includes  Agriculture,  Horticul- 
ture, Forestry,  Animal  Industry,  and  Road  Building. 

Agriculture  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  general  manage- 
ment of  lands  and  farms,  and  the  production  of  useful  plants  and 
animals. 

Horticulture  treats  of  the  growing  of  fruits,  vegetables,  and 
ornamental  plants.  It  may  be  subdivided  into  Olericulture, 
Pomology,  Floriculture,  and  Landscape  Gardening. 

Olericulture  is  the  science  which  treats  of  vegetable  growing  and 
truck  farming. 


COUNTRY  LIFE   AND   FARMING  9 

Pomology  is  the  science  or  art  of  fruit  growing. 

Floriculture  is  the  cultivation  of  plants  for  use  as  ornaments. 

Landscape  Gardening  is  the  growing  and  planting  of  ornamental 
plants  for  their  uses  in  mass  effects  in  making  up  a  landscape 
view. 

Forestry  is  the  growing  of  timber  for  lumber  and  wood,  or  for 
producing  secondary  effects  upon  any  region  by  modifying  the 
climate  or  by  preserving  the  water  supply  for  rivers  and  lakes. 

Animal  Industry  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  proper  manage- 
ment and  feeding  of  animals  for  direct  use  or  for  the  products 
they  furnish. 

Road  Building.  —  Good  roads  are  necessary  in  order  that  the 
perishable  farm  products  may  be  got  to  market  with  as  little 
delay  and  with  as  little  expense  as  possible.  In  view  of  this  fact, 
every  farmer  should  know  something  about  road  building  and 
road  repairing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Mention  some  of  the  benefits  of  country  life. 

2.  What  can  you  say  of  the  advantages  of  city  life? 

3.  What  objections  do  you  find  to  city  life  ? 

4.  Discuss  the  effects  of  overcrowding  in  cities. 

5.  Why  do  so  many  of  our  young  people  leave  the  country  for  the  city  ? 

6.  Why  do  some  people  look  upon  farming  as  a  degraded  calling? 

7.  How  does  the  unskillful  farmer  regard  his  farm? 

8.  How  is  the  land  treated  by  the  skillful  farmer? 

9.  What  does  farm  science  include  ? 

10.  Define  agriculture  in  its  restricted  sense. 

11.  What  is  horticulture,  and  what  does  it  include? 

12.  Define  olericulture,  pomology,  floriculture,  landscape  gardening. 

13.  What  is  forestry  ? 

14.  Define  animal  industry. 

15.  Why  should  every  farmer  know  something  of  road  building  ? 

REFERENCES 

The  School  and  Farm,  Eggert. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Bailey. 


II.     THE   HISTORY   OF   AGRICULTURE 

IN  early  times  there  was  much  drudgery  connected  with  farm 
life,  and  the  lot  of  the  farmer  was  hard,  indeed.  But  few  imple- 
ments were  used,  and  these  were  of  a  very  crude  type.  The  only 
form  of  plow  known  was  a  rude  crooked  stick  which  was  drawn 
along  the  top  of  the  ground  by  men  or  oxen.  All  seed  was  sown 
broadcast  by  hand,  and  when  the  grain  was  ripe  it  was  cut  with  a 
reaping  hook  or  a  scythe.  Thrashers  were  unknown  and  all  grain 
had  to  be  thrashed  out  by  hand.  This  was  generally  accomplished 
by  spreading  the  grain  out  on  the  barn  floor  or  the  ground  and 
beating  it  with  a  flail.  Sometimes  the  thrashing  was  effected  by 
the  treading  of  animals.  Muscle  and  brawn  ruled  in  these  early 
days,  and  people  were  not  accustomed  to  do  much  thinking  or  plan- 
ning to  better  their  conditions.  Professor  Davidson  says:  "  The 
Roman  farmer  in  the  time  of  Columella  spent  four  and  six-tenth 
days  in  growing  a  bushel  of  wheat,  while  in  1830  the  same  amount 
of  wheat  could  be  grown  under  improved  hand  methods  with  three 
hours'  work  at  a  cost  of  17.7  cents.  At  the  present  time  under 
improved  machine  methods  the  same  result  may  be  secured  with 
only  nine  minutes'  work  and  at  a  cost  of  three  and  five-tenths 
cents."  The  change  from  the  use  of  implements  for  hand  produc- 
tion to  those  for  machine  production  has  relieved  farm  work  of 
much  of  its  drudgery  and  has  at  the  same  time  greatly  cheapened 
the  cost  of  production  of  crops  of  every  kind. 

The  widespread  introduction  of  highly  specialized  and  complex 
farm  machinery  has  made  it  necessary  that  the  farmer  shall  be  a 
mechanic,  while  the  close  competition  that  has  arisen  in  every  line 
of  production  has  made  it  obvious  that  all  farm  operations  must  be 
conducted  according  to  scientific  methods.  Acquaintance  with 
some  of  these  methods  may  be  gained  through  costly  experience, 
but  a  systematic  study  of  agriculture  in  the  public  schools,  farm- 
ers' institutes,  and  State  Agricultural  Colleges  of  our  country  offers 
a  more  direct  way  to  learn  the  facts  of  scientific  agriculture, 

1Q 


THE  HISTORY  OF  AGRICULTURE  11 

Contrary  to  the  popular  belief,  agriculture  is  not  a  new  study  by 
any  means,  although  it  is  just  beginning  to  receive  attention  in  the 
public  schools  of  this  country.  The  Chinese  nation  made  agricul- 
ture a  part  of  its  school  course  over  four  thousand  years  ago,  but  it 
must  be  admitted  that  its  people  have  made  slow  progress  in  the 
subject,  and  that  they  are  still  following  very  crude  methods  of 
farming. 

The  Romans  gave  much  attention  to  farming,  and  many  of  their 
statesmen  spent  their  leisure  moments  in  the  country.  The  poems 
of  Vergil,  Horace,  and  other  Roman  authors  extol  the  virtues  of 
country  life  and  show  the  high  esteem  in  which  the  farm  was  held. 
As  long  as  agriculture  held  the  place  of  honor  with  the  Romans  and 
they  lived  on  their  own  lands  they  waxed  strong  and  conquered  all 
nations  that  opposed  them.  But  when  at  a  later  date  the  farms 
were  neglected  and  left  to  the  care  of  slaves,  and  the  freemen  flocked 
to  the  cities,  the  Roman  nation  began  to  decay  and  soon  sank  into 
obscurity.  Their  conquerors  were  the  sturdy  Teutonic  tribes  of 
northern  Europe  who  lived  out  of  doors  and  were  strangers  to 
city  life.  The  ancient  Egyptians  cultivated  the  rich  valley  of  the 
Nile  and  made  it  the  granary  and  the  storehouse  of  the  world. 
The  early  Israelites  or  Jews  were  largely  farmers  and  shepherds, 
and  the  sturdy  characteristics  of  their  descendants  to-day  are  in  a 
measure  due  to  this  fact.  In  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  there  are 
abundant  evidences  that  the  ancient  Indians  of  those  regions  gave 
much  attention  to  agriculture.  They  were  good  farmers  and 
thoroughly  understood  the  necessity  and  benefits  of  irrigation  in  an 
arid  region.  They  made  the  Salt  River  Valley  of  Arizona  the  gar- 
den spot  of  the  West,  and  one  may  find  to-day  in  the  country  sur- 
rounding Phosnix  many  traces  and  evidences  of  the  former  irriga- 
tion ditches  and  trenches  made  by  these  Indians.  They  reached 
a  high  state  of  civilization  and  built  many  cities,  the  ruins  of  which 
stand  to-day  as  monuments  to  their  thrift  and  industry. 

In  a  general  way  we  can  say  that  nearly  every  strong  and  sturdy 
nation  known  in  history  has  been  a  nation  in  which  farming  has  been 
the  chief  occupation.  England,  Germany,  France,  the  United 
States,  and  all  the  other  strong  nations  of  the  world  have  established 
schools,  experiment  stations,  and  colleges  for  the  instruction  of 
their  farmers  in  this  great  and  useful  science. 


12  THE   HISTORY  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Our  national  government  has  made  provision  for  the  support  of 
an  agricultural  college  and  an  experiment  station  in  every  State 
and  Territory,  and  it  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  best  investments 
that  the  national  government  has  ever  made.  Oklahoma,  which 
is  one  of  the  last  States  to  be  admitted  into  the  Union,  is  to  be 
especially  commended  for  having  adopted  a  constitution  which 
provides  that  agriculture  and  domestic  science  shall  be  taught  in 
all  the  public  schools  of  the  State.  In  many  of  our  States  agricul- 
tural high  schools  have  been  established,  which  are  doing  a  great 
and  good  work.  Georgia  and  Alabama  in  the  South  and  Wisconsin 
in  the  North  have  done  more,  perhaps,  along  this  line  than  any  of 
their  sister  States.  The  time  is  not  far  distant  when  agriculture 
will  be  taught  in  every  school  of  our  country.  When  this  has  been 
done,  we  may  expect  a  new  era  in  farming  and  far  more  prosperous 
times. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  man's  early  struggle  with  the  soil. 

2.  Mention  some  of  the  first  farming  implements  that  were  used. 

3.  What  has  cheapened  the  cost  of  farm  products  of  every  kind  ? 

4.  Why  is  a  systematic  study  of  agriculture  necessary  ? 

5.  Is  agriculture  a  new  study  or  subject  ? 

6.  What  oriental  nation  early  gave  attention  to  agriculture  and  made 
it  a  part  of  the  course  of  study  for  schools  ? 

7.  Discuss  the  position  of  agriculture  among  the  early  Romans. 

8.  What  attention  was  given  agriculture  by  the  early  Indians  of  North 
America  ?     What  proof  have  we  of  this  fact  ? 

9.  Do  our  strong  and  vigorous  men  come  from   the  country  or  the 
city?     Why? 

10.  What  steps  have  England,  France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States 
taken  to  promote  agricultural  education  ? 

11.  What  States  have  taken  the  lead  in  establishing  agricultural  high 
schools  ? 

12.  For  what  is  the  constitution  of   Oklahoma  especially  to  be  com- 
mended ? 

REFERENCES 

Agriculture  for  the  Common  Schools,  Hunnicutt. 
The  School  and  Farm,  Eggert. 
Twelfth  Census  (1900),  Volumes  V  and  VI. 
General  History,  Colby. 


III.     AIR  AND   SUNLIGHT 

The  Air.  —  The  earth  is  surrounded  by  a  mixture  of  several 
gases  which  we  usually  call  the  air  or  atmosphere.  These  gases  and 
their  average  amount  by  volume  are  as  follows: 

Nitrogen     ' 77.50  parts 

Oxygen 20.64  parts 

Argon 1.00  parts 

Carbon  Dioxide 04  parts 

Water  Vapor 82  parts 

Total  ....   100.00  parts 

Besides  these  there  are  traces  of  other  constituents,  such  as 
ammonia,  nitric  acid,  dust,  ozone,  and  a  few  other  substances. 
About  5  per  cent  of  the  food  of  the  plant  is  mineral  matter  from 
the  soil  and  the  other  95  per  cent  is  made  up  of  water  (composed 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen),  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  all  of 
which  are  contained  in  air. 

Carbon.  —  Our  most  familiar  example  of  carbon  in  a  solid  form 
is  found  in  mineral  coal  and  charcoal.  If  we  partly  burn  a  pine 
splinter  and  note  carefully  the  black  substance  that  is  formed,  we 
find  that  it  is  carbon.  When  wood  or  coal  is  burned,  the  carbon 
in  these  substances  unites  with  the  oxygen  in  the  air  and  forms  an 
invisible  gas  called  carbon  dioxide. 

All  the  carbon  in  the  plant  comes  from  the  air,  and  while  the 
amount  of  carbon  dioxide  present  in  the  air  seems  relatively  small, 
there  is  more  than  enough  present  to  supply  all  the  demands  of 
vegetation.  Professor  Storer  estimates  that  there  is  enough  of 
this  gas  to  approximate  twenty-eight  tons  for  every  acre  of  the 
earth's  surface.  According  to  Professor  Chevandier  an  acre  of 
thrifty  beech  trees  will  assimilate  about  three  tons  of  carbon  dioxide 
in  a  year ;  and  if  the  whole  earth  were  covered  with  a  forest  of  such 
trees,  it  would  require  more  than  nine  years  to  consume  all  this  gas 

13 


14  AIR  AND   SUNLIGHT 

now  present  in  the  air.  However,  there  is  a  never  failing  supply 
of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  atmosphere,  coming  from  the  processes  of 
combustion,  decay,  and  fermentation.  Another  source  is  found  in 
the  respiration  of  animals,  since  they  breathe  in  oxygen  and  give  off 
carbon  dioxide.  In  some  localities  large  quantities  of  carbon  di- 
oxide are  given  off  from  mineral  springs  and  volcanoes.  This  gas  is 
also  found  in  the  pores  of  the  soil,  especially  in  regions  where  the 
soil  is  of  limestone  origin.  The  acids  of  the  soils  coming  in  contact 
with  the  limestone  or  calcium  carbonate  decompose  this  substance 
and  liberate  carbon  dioxide.  An  illustration  of  this  may  be  seen 
when  a  little  hydrochloric  acid  is  poured  on  some  small  pieces  of 
marble.  There  is  a  brisk  evolution  of  gas  which  on  testing  we 
find  to  be  carbon  dioxide.  Its  presence  may  be  proved  by  passing 
the  gas  through  clear  limewater,  which  it  soon  clouds  and  makes  a 
milky  white.  Its  presence  in  the  air  we  exhale  may  be  detected 
in  the  same  way.  Carbon  dioxide  also  has  the  property  of  ex- 
tinguishing flames  by  shutting  off  the  supply  of  oxygen  necessary 
for  combustion. 

Since  there  are  so  many  courses  of  carbon  dioxide,  there  is  no 
danger  of  the  supply  ever  becoming  exhausted.  There  is  more  than 
enough  present  to  meet  all  demands  of  vegetation,  and  there  would 
be  no  advantage  gained  by  increasing  the  amount  usually  found  in 
the  atmosphere.  On  account  of  the  principle'  known  as  diffusion 
in  gases  and  the  stirring  action. of  winds  the  proportion  of  carbon 
dioxide  in  the  air  is  kept  remarkably  constant.  The  ventilating 
power  of  the  wind  can  scarcely  be  appreciated  by  any  one  who  has 
not  given  any  thought  to  the  matter.  Professor  Storer  of  Harvard 
University  says,  "  Air  moving  no  faster  than  two  miles  an  hour, 
which  is  almost  imperceptible,  if  allowed  to  pass  freely  through  an 
open  shed,  will  change  the  air  of  the  place  528  times  in  an  hour. 
Hence,  having  regard  to  their  respective  requirements,  carbon 
dioxide  is,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  supplied  as  freely  to  plants 
by  the  air  as  oxygen  is  supplied  to  animals." 

The  carbon  in  the  atmosphere  can  be  assimilated  by  plants  only 
in  the  presence  of  light  and  through  the  chlorophyll  or  green  color- 
ing matter  in  their  leaves.  In  the  absence  of  light  plants  exhale 
carbon  dioxide  instead  of  oxygen.  According  to  Professor  Storer, 
plants  exposed  to  the  dull  light  of  a  cloudy  day  will  sometimes 


AIR   AND  SUNLIGHT  15 

exhale  carbonic  dioxide  and  at  other  times  oxygen,  according  to 
the  intensity  of  the  light  and  the  state  of  development  of  the  plant. 

Oxygen  is  the  life-giving  principle  in  the  air  for  man  and  animals. 
It  is  the  most  abundant  substance  of  the  earth,  and  comprises  by 
volume  about  one  fifth  of  our  atmosphere.  It  is  present  in  both 
plants  and  animals,  both  free  and  also  in  combination  with  other 
elements.  Oxygen  is  just  as  essential  for  plants  as  for  animals  and 
it  plays  an  important  part  in  the  chemical  reactions  that  occur  in 
the  processes  by  which  new  cells  are  built  up  from  the  materials 
elaborated  in  the  older  cells.  It  has  been  found  that  seed  will  not 
germinate  or  sprout  in  the  absence  of  oxygen.  Young  plants 
when  deprived  of  it  soon  wither  and  perish.  The  young  buds 
of  trees  on  opening  in  the  spring  absorb  oxygen  from  the  air  and 
experiments  show  that  they  wither  and  decay  when  confined  in  an 
atmosphere  from  which  the  oxygen  has  been  removed.  Oxygen 
is  also  taken  up  by  flowers  and  ripening  fruit.  Mushrooms  and 
lichens  absorb  oxygen  very  freely  from  the  air  and  give  off  a  corre- 
sponding quantity  of  carbon  dioxide. 

The  amount  of  oxygen  contained  in  vegetable  matters  is  really 
very  large,  in  fact  it  is  much  larger  than  we  might  suspect  on  first 
thought.  About  seventy-five  pounds  of  every  hundred  pounds 
of  vegetable  matter  consists  of  water,  and  since  oxygen  comprises 
eight  ninths  of  the  weight  of  water,  it  is  evident  that  the  oxygen 
from  this  source  alone  would  amount  to  66|  pounds  or  to  66f 
per  cent.  When  we  add  to  this  the  amount  of  oxygen  found 
in  combination  with  other  elements  in  plants  and  animals  we  can 
appreciate  the  important  role  it  plays  in  the  development  of  all 
forms  of  life. 

Nitrogen  is  necessary  for  both  plant  and  animal  growth.  Ani- 
mals obtain  their  supply  of  nitrogen  from  plants  and  from  animal 
food.  Nitrogen  inhaled  with  the  oxygen  is  exhaled  practically 
unchanged  with  the  carbon  dioxide.  Leguminous  plants,  such  as 
clover,  alfalfa,  and  cowpeas,  obtain  a  part  of  their  supply  of  nitro- 
gen from  the  air,  but  other  families  of  plants  secure  nitrogen  from 
certain  nitrates  in  the  soil,  such  as  the  nitrates  of  potash,  lime, 
soda,  and  ammonia. 

Hydrogen  does  not  exist  in  the  atmosphere  in  a  free  state,  but  is 
found  combined  with  other  elements.  It  unites  with  oxygen  to 


16  AIR   AND   SUNLIGHT 


form  water  and  with  nitrogen  to  form  ammonia  gas.  Both  animal 
and  plant  life  require  water  for  growth  and  development. 

Depth  and  Pressure  of  the  Air.  —  We  are  living  at  the  bottom  of 
a  vast  ocean  of  air  which  has  a  depth  estimated  to  be  from  three 
hundred  to  five  hundred  miles.  This  depth  of  air  exerts  an  enor- 
mous pressure  upon  all  objects  at  sea  level.  This  pressure  is  nearly 
fifteen  pounds  on  each  square  inch  of  surface  or  more  than  a  ton 
to  the  square  foot.  On  a  square  rod  of  land  the  pressure  is  two 
hundred  and  eighty-nine  tons. 

As  we  go  upward  this  pressure  decreases  rapidly.  In  fact,  the 
change  is  so  rapid  that  we  leave  about  96  per  cent  of  the  entire  mass 
behind  us  in  the  first  fifteen  miles  as  we  go  upward. 

In  climbing  high  mountains  such  as  Pikes  Peak  we  soon  note 
this  rareness  or  thinness  of  the  air  and  we  find  that  breathing  be- 
comes correspondingly  difficult.  We  note  also  that  the  air  grows 
colder  the  higher  we  go.  The  soil  temperature  likewise  decreases  as 
the  altitude  on  the  mountain  side  increases,  until  even  in  tropical 
regions  frozen  ground  and  perpetual  snowdrifts  may  be  found  from 
four  to  five  miles  above  sea  level.  From  this  we  learn  that  the 
atmosphere  performs  another  important  office  in  keeping  the  earth 
warm.  The  radiant  energy  of  the  sun  is  absorbed  in  large  quanti- 
ties by  the  lower  and  denser  layers  of  atmosphere  at  the  earth's 
surface,  while  in  the  thin  air  but  little  if  any  is  absorbed  Hence, 
freezing  temperatures  are  soon  reached  as  we  go  upward  in  the 
atmosphere  even  in  the  summer  time.  Professor  Langley  states 
that  his  experiments  at  the  base  and  summit  of  Mt.  Whitney  led 
him  to  believe  that  had  our  earth  no  atmosphere  its  surface  tem- 
perature, even  under  the  equator  at  noon,  would  be  at  least  two 
hundred  degrees  below  freezing  point. 

However,  the  upper  layers  of  thin  air  are  not  without  their  value 
to  mankind,  because  they  protect  the  earth  from  the  vast  number 
of  meteors  or  shooting  stars  which  are  continually  falling  into  it. 
These  meteors,  on  account  of  their  high  rate  of  speed  and  the  great 
amount  of  friction  produced  when  they  reach  the  air,  soon  gener- 
ate enough  heat  to  entirely  consume  them.  Fifty  millions  or 
more  of  them  are  destroyed  in  this  way  every  month. 

The  Sunlight.  —  The  warming  as  well  as  the  lighting  of  the  earth 
by  the  sun  is  a  fact  of  great  importance  to  us.  The  source  of  all 


AIR   AND   SUNLIGHT  17 

our  energy  we  owe  either  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  sun.  With- 
out it  there  could  be  no  life  on  the  earth,  our  oceans  would  become 
vast  bodies  of  ice,  and  all  our  lands  would  be  frost-bound  the  year 
round.  The  movement  of  the  winds  and  waters,  and  changes  of 
temperature  all  depend  on  the  sun's  action.  This  solar  energy  or 
sunshine  is  a  sort  of  motion  which  comes  to  us  at  the  rate  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty-six  thousand  miles  in  a  second  of  time  and 
it  is  this  energy  which  does  almost  the  entire  work  of  the  world. 
If  we  let  bright  sunshine  pass  through  a  lens  and  hold  a  piece 
of  paper  at  the  proper  distance,  the  light  rays  come  together 
at  a  point  or  focus,  and  the  paper  is  quickly  set  on  fire  by  the 
heating  powers  of  the  dark  or  invisible  rays  from  the  sun.  We 
can  easily  prove  that  this  is  true  by  placing  a  solution  of  iodine  in 
bisulphide  of  carbon  between  the  sun  and  the  lens.  This  shuts 
out  the  light  rays  but  allows  the  dark  rays  to  pass  through.  When 
this  is  done,  we  find  that  the  same  heating  effect  is  produced  as 
before.  If  a  solution  of  alum  water  is  substituted  for  the  carbon 
bisulphide  solution  of  iodine,  the  heat  rays  will  be  sifted  out,  and 
the  light  rays  when  focused  on  the  paper  produce  no  apparent 
heating  effects. 

The  fact  that  water  absorbs  these  heat  rays  instead  of  transmit- 
ting them  is  of  vast  importance  to  us.  Were  it  not  for  this  fact, 
neither  snow  nor  ice  would  melt  rapidly  in  the  spring.  There 
would  be  but  little  evaporation,  rains  would  be  of  rare  occurrence, 
and  lands  would  be  much  less  productive.  Besides  these  invisible 
heat  rays  that  come  from  the  sun  there  are  other  waves  that  pro- 
duce colors  and  still  others  that  are  capable  of  producing  certain 
chemical  changes  of  use  to  photographers.  Summing  up,  we  may 
say,  then,  there  are  three  principal  kinds  of  rays  that  reach  us  from 
the  sun:  1.  The  invisible  heat  rays  which  furnish  us  warmth. 
2.  The  light  rays  which  produce  our  colors.  3.  The  actinic  rays 
which  produce  chemical  changes. 

As  to  how  these  rays  from  the  sun  reach  us  is  a  question  of  physics 
rather  than  of  agriculture,  but  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  sun- 
light reaches  us  through  a  medium  known  as  the  ether.  This 
medium,  according  to  Mendelejeff,  the  great  Russian  chemist,  is  a 
gas  one  million  times  lighter  than  hydrogen,  the  lightest  gas  now 
known  to  most  of  us,  and  with  a  power  of  diffusion  so  great  that  a 

PRAC.  AGRICUL.  —  2 


18  AIR  AND  SUNLIGHT 

vessel  of  no  material  now  known  can  confine  it.  In  the  limitless 
ocean  of  ether  surrounding  the  sun  innumerable  waves  are  set  up 
and  transmitted  in  all  directions.  More  than  four  hundred  mil- 
lions of  them  arrive  at  the  earth  every  second,  having  come  across 
ninety-three  millions  of  miles  in  about  eight  minutes.  It  is  under 
such  hurried  strokes  as  these  that  many  of  the  processes  of  plant 
growth  are  produced. 

To  appreciate  the  true  value  of  sunlight  we  have  only  to  observe 
the  sickly  appearance  of  plants  in  the  shade  or  in  dark  places.  No 
doubt  you  have  observed  that  the  tops  of  many  house  plants 
incline  towards  the  source  of  light.  In  New  Mexico,  near  Ros- 
well,  one  may  frequently  see  the  same  thing  illustrated  in  the  long 
rows  of  cottonwood  trees  lining  the  banks  of  irrigating  ditches 
which  border  many  of  the  roadways  and  drives.  Florists  some- 
times arrange  window  plants  on  a  revolving  platform  in  order 
to  secure  an  equal  distribution  of  the  light  and  an  even  growth  of 
the  plant.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  plants  must  have  plenty 
of  sunlight  in  order  to  develop. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Place  some  marble  or  limestone  in  a  glass  or  a  bottle,  and  add  a  little 
hydrochloric  acid.     Test  the  gas  that  is  formed  and  ascertain  what  it  is. 

2.  Blow  your  breath  through  limewater  by  means  of  a  straw  or  a  glass 
tube.     Note  the  results  and  explain. 

3.  Plant  a  few  grains  of  wheat  or  corn  in  two  tomato  cans  filled  with  good 
soil.     Puncture  the  bottom  of  one  of  the  cans  and  give  the  seed  and  soil 
in  this  can  only  a  moderate  quantity  of  water  from  time  to  time  as  needed. 
Keep  the  soil  in  the  other  can  water-soaked  so  as  to  exclude  the  air  as  much 
as  possible.     Note  the  results  and  explain. 

4.  Place  two  cans  or  pots  containing  plants  in  the  window  where  the 
light  can  shine  on  both.     Label  one  of  the  cans  A  and  the  other  one  B. 
Adjust  the  position  of  the  one  marked  A  several  times  each  day  so  that  all 
parts  of  the  plant  will  have  an  equal  chance  at  the  light.     Do  not  change 
the  position  of  B  at  all;  and  compare  results  in  the  development  of  fie  two 
plants.     Explain. 

5.  Grow  plants  both  in  the  shade  and  the  sun.     Explain  results. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  composition  of  the  air. 

2.  What  part  of  plant  food  is  derived  from  (a)  the  soil,  (6)  the  air  ? 

3.  In  what  forms  does  carbon  appear? 


AIR  AND  SUNLIGHT  19 

4.  What  is  said  of  carbon  dioxide? 

5.  What  can  you  say  of  the  relative  amount  of  this  substance  ? 

6.  Mention  the  natural  sources  of  carbon  dioxide. 

7.  Explain  how  carbon  dioxide  may  be  prepared  artificially  and  how  its 
presence  may  be  detected. 

8.  Through  what  means  are  the  gases  in  the  atmosphere  kept  evenly 
distributed? 

9.  Is  the  popular  belief  that  plants  inhale  carbon  dioxide  and  exhale 
oxygen  always  true  ?    Explain. 

10.  What  effect  has  darkness  and  cloudy  weather  on  the  respiration  of 
plants  ? 

11.  In  what  forms  is  oxygen  found  in  plants  and  animals? 

12.  What  effect  has  oxygen  on  the  germination  of  seeds  ? 

13.  Discuss  oxygen  in  its  relations  to  young  plants,  young  buds,  flowers, 
«ind  fruit. 

14.  What  plants  inhale  oxygen  and  exhale  carbon  dioxide? 

15.  What  can  you  say  of  the  amount  of  oxygen  present  in  vegetable 
matter  ? 

16.  Discuss  nitrogen  and  its  relations  to  plants* 

17.  What  is  said  of  hydrogen? 

18.  Discuss  air  pressure. 

19.  How  is  the  earth  kept  warm? 

20.  Discuss  sunlight  and  its  action  on  plants. 

21.  What  is  chlorophyll? 

22.  How  is  all  plant  food  formed  ? 

REFERENCES 

The  Soil,  King. 

Agriculture,  Storer. 

Cyclopedia  of  A  merican  Agriculture,  Bailev 

Chemistry,  Wurtz. 

Physical  Geography,  Dryer. 


IV.     WATER 

WATER  is  composed  of  two  substances,  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
in  the  proportion  of  two  volumes  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter. 
A  fresh  living  plant  consists  largely  of  water.  Young  grass  and 
fresh  potatoes  are  about  three  fourths  or  75  per  cent  water,  which 
may  be  driven  off  by  continuous  heating  to  212°  F.,  the  boiling 
point  of  water  under  normal  conditions.  Beets  and  carrots  contain 
from  80  per  cent  to  90  per  cent  of  water.  They  are  constantly 
absorbing  water  through  their  roots  and  giving  it  off  through 
their  leaves.  Carefully  conducted  experiments  show  that  for 
every  pound  of  dry  matter  in  oats  three  hundred  and  seventy-six 
pounds  of  water  are  required,  three  hundred  and  thirty-eight  pounds 
for  wheat,  and  three  hundred  and  ten  for  red  clover.  If  we  assume 
that  about  80  per  cent  of  clover  is  water,  we  can  easily  calculate 
how  much  water  would  be  used  up  in  growing  ten  acres  of  clover 
weighing  about  twelve  thousand  pounds.  Trees  as  a  rule  contain 
less  than  one  third  their  weight  of  water.  This  percentage  in- 
creases during  the  spring  and  decreases  slightly  in  the  winter.  The 
amount  also  varies  for  different  trees.  From  monthly  determi- 
nations it  has  been  found  that  the  average  yearly  amount  of  water 
in  a  pine  tree  is  61  per  cent,  in  a  poplar  53  per  cent,  in  a  birch 
49  per  cent,  and  in  a  maple  42  per  cent. 

Water  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  substances  found  on  the  earth. 
Curiously  enough  we  find  here,  as  in  the  case  of  plants,  that  about 
three  fourths  of  the  earth's  surface  is  composed  of  water,  while  only 
one  fourth  is  land.  Water  is  also  present  in  the  air  in  the  form 
of  vapor.  The  amount,  which  we  call  humidity,  varies  greatly 
in  different  parts  of  the  United  States.  In  the  States  along 
the  Gulf  Coast  and  a  narrow  belt  along  the  sea  in  Oregon  and 
Washington,  the  humidity  is  great  and  the  rainfall  is  from  fifty 
to  sixty  inches.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  districts  in  Nevada, 
Arizona,  and  Utah  where  the  rainfall  is  less  than  five  inches  a  year. 
The  explanation  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  moist  air  from  the 

20 


WATER 


21 


ocean  loses  much  of  its  moisture  in  passing  the  coastal  mountains. 
The  warmer  the  air  becomes  the  more  water  vapor  it  can  hold. 
The  sun's  heat  falling  on  the  moist  earth  and  the  water  causes 
evaporation.  On  dry,  hot  days  the  air  is  like  a  great  sponge  and 
drinks  up  moisture  from 
the  earth,  plants,  and 
everything  with  which  it 
comes  in  contact.  When 
there  is  much  moisture 
present  in  the  air  and  the 
temperature  is  high,  we 
say  the  weather  is  heavy 
and  sultry.  The  warm, 
humid  air  can  absorb  but 
little  moisture,  and  hence 
drops  of  perspiration  col- 
lect on  the  body.  In  dry, 
arid  regions  there  is  little 
moisture  present,  and  the 
rate  at  which  evaporation 
goes  on  is  rapid  and  so 
perspiration  does  not  col- 
lect on  the  surface  of  our  bodies.  Whenever  evaporation  takes 
place  there  is  always  a  lowering  of  temperature.  In  Arizona 
water  is  often  placed  in  porous  earthen  vessels,  which  are  hung 
up  where  the  breeze  or  a  draft  of  air  can  strike  them,  and  the 
evaporation  going  on  from  the  surface  of  these  vessels  is  sufficient 
to  cool  the  water  until  it  is  almost  like  ice  water. 

Another  point  we  should  remember  in  considering  the  humid- 
ity of  the  air  is  that,  when  the  sun's  heat  is  removed,  the  air 
grows  cool,  and  its  ability  to  hold  moisture  decreases;  and  as  the 
temperature  continues  to  fall,  a  point  is  soon  reached  where  the 
vapor  will  condense  on  the  grass  and  the  leaves  of  the  plants  and 
also  on  roofs  and  stones.  This  is  called  dew,  and  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  it  begins  to  form  is  called  the  dew-point.  Do 
not  jump  at  the  conclusion  that  all  the  drops  of  water  you  see 
sparkling  on  the  trees  and  grass  have  come  from  the  air,  for  many 
of  them  have  worked  their  way  from  the  ground  through  the  plant 


RAINFAJLX. 

Little  or  no  rain 
Light  rains 

Moderately  heavy  rains 
Hcavu  rains 


22  WATER 

and  have  been  transpired;  that  is,  breathed  out,  by  the  leaves. 
On  cloudy  nights  dew  is  not  likely  to  form  because  the  clouds  act 
like  a  great  blanket  and  prevent  rapid  cooling  of  the  ground,  so 
that  the  temperature  of  the  earth  and  the  air  in  contact  with  it  do 
not  differ  enough  to  favor  the  condensation  of  moisture.  Again, 
when  high  winds  prevail,  moisture  is  evaporated  as  fast  as  it  con- 
denses and  hence  no  dew  is  formed.  Frost  may  be  regarded  as 
frozen  dew;  that  is,  the  surplus  moisture  in  this  case  is  frozen  as 
it  reaches  the  point  of  condensation. 

Clouds  prevent  frost  by  holding  in  the  heat  which  has  accu- 
mulated during  the  day,  because  any  heat  radiated  into  space  is 


Snowflakes. 

caught  by  the  surface  of  the  clouds  and  is  thrown  back  to  the  earth. 
We  often  effect  the  same  result  by  placing  coverings  over  plants 
on  cold  nights  to  protect  them  from  frost.  High  winds  cause  rapid 
evaporation  and  so  prevent  frost.  Again,  the  warm  air,  being 
lighter  than  the  cold  air,  which  drives  it  out  of  the  valleys  and  low- 
lands, covers  the  hills  and  ridges  and  so  often  protects  plants 
from  the  damage  done  by  frost,  while  in  the  low  places  vegetation 
suffers  severely  from  its  effects.  Dust  and  smoke  also  act  like 
clouds  in  stopping  radiation  and  preventing  frost. 

If  a  few  feet  or  a  few  hundred  feet  of  the  lower  air  cool  to  the  dew- 
point,  a  fog  is  formed  in  place  of  dew.  The  particles  of  invisible 
vapor  unite  and  become  visible,  but  are  so  light  that  the  air  still 
supports  them.  Clouds  do  not  differ  very  materially  from  fogs 
except  that  they  are  formed  higher  in  the  air.  They  are  seen  at 
heights  that  vary  from  a  few  hundred  yards  to  distances  ranging 
from  five  to  ten  miles  above  sea  level.  Finally,  these  fine  particles 


WATER  23 

of  water  unite  and  form  drops  of  water  which  fall  to  the  earth  in 
the  form  of  rain.  If  these  drops  are  frozen,  hail  results.  If  the 
vapor  condenses  in  a  region  where  the  temperature  is  below  the 
freezing  point,  the  moisture  forms  crystals  of  ice  of  various  forms, 
and  these  fall  as  snow.  Moisture  in  the  air  serves  another  purpose 
in  helping  to  keep  the  earth  warm.  The  lower  and  denser  air  is 
heated  by  the  sun's  rays  passing  through  them,  and  the  moisture 
acts  as  a  blanket  to  prevent  the  loss  of  this  heat  by  radiation. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Place  a  glass  tumbler  of  ice  water  in  a  warm  room  and  note  the 
results.      Repeat  the  experiment  and  direct  a  current  of  air  against  the 
glass  by  fanning  or  by  some  other  means,  and  note  whether  the  amount  of 
moisture  condensed  on  the  surface  of  the  glass  is  the  same  as  before. 

2.  Take  two  thermometers  and  see  that  they  read  the  same  in  the  begin- 
ning.    Now  cover  the  bulb  of  one  of  the  thermometers  with  a  wet  cloth 
and  place  it  in  the  wind  where  evaporation  will  be  favored,  and  note  whether 
this  thermometer  reads  the  same  as  the  one  with  the  dry  bulb.      Account 
for  the  difference. 

3.  Weigh  a  potato,  then  heat  it  until  all  the  water  is  driven  off,  and 
weigh  again.     Compare  the  relative  weights,  and  estimate  the  percentage 
of  solid  mineral  material  and  the  percentage  of  water  found  in  the  potato. 

4.  Weigh  a  green    plant,  then  hang  it  up  in  the  air  for  several  days. 
When  it  is  thoroughly  dry,  weigh  again.     Note  the  difference  and  explain. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  composition  of  water  ? 

2.  What  per  cent  of  the  plant  is  composed  of  water  ? 

3.  Discuss  the  amount  of  water  required  by  a  plant  in  making  its  growth. 

4.  Do  seasons  affect  this  ?    Explain. 

5.  Discuss  the  distribution  of  rainfall  in  the  United  States. 

6.  Discuss  (a)  evaporation,  (6)  dew,  (c)  fog,  (d)  frost. 

7.  How  many  pounds  of  water  are  required    to  grow  fifty  bushels  of 
(a)  oats,  (6)  wheat? 

8.  How  do  clouds  prevent  frost  ? 

9.  What  effect  have  winds  on  the  formation  of  frost  and  dew  ? 

10.   Explain  why  plants  on  high  ground  frequently  escape  injury  when 
plants  on  low  ground  are  frost-bitten  and  killed. 

REFERENCES 

Agriculture,  Storer. 
Elements  of  Physics,  Hoadley. 
Physical  Geography,  Dryer. 
The  Soil,  King. 


V.   THE   SOIL 


Soil  Defined.  —  Soil  consists  of  finely  divided  rock  fragments 
with  which  air,  water,  certain  living  organisms,  and  parts  of  decay- 
ing plants  or  animals  are  mixed.  On  it  cultivated  plants  may  be 
grown.  Ordinarily,  the  term  is  applied  to  the  first  six  to  twelve 
inches  of  the  earth's  surface  in  which  plants  may  be  grown. 

The  Subsoil.  —  The  harder  and  colder  earth  under  the  top  soil 
or  surface  layer  is  called  the  subsoil.  It  differs  from  the  top  soil 
in  that  it  contains  less  vegetable  matter,  is  less  finely  divided, 
and  is  more  compact.  Sometimes  there  is  a  sharp  line  of  demarca- 
tion in  the  color  of  the  two  portions;  when  the  deeper  soil  is 
brought  to  the  surface  it  is  found  to  be  unproductive  in  some  cases. 
However,  in  arid  regions  these  distinctions  do  not  always  appear. 
In  Arizona  and  some  of  the  other  western  States  the  soil  from  a 
depth  of  thirty  feet  or  more  is  frequently  found  to  be  quite  pro- 
ductive. The  subsoil  renews  the  minerals  depleted  in  the  top 
soil  and  also  acts  as  a  retaining  medium  for  the  roots  of  plants  and 
trees  and  as  a  storehouse  of  moisture. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  first  eight  inches  of  soil  on  each  acre 
contain  over  three  thousand  pounds  of  nitrogen,  nearly  four 

thousand  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  over  seven- 
teen thousand  pounds  of 
potash.  Still,  the  soil  itself 
furnishes  no  more  than  10 
per  cent  of  the  weight  of 

Relative  positions  of  soil,   subsoil,   and  underlying    plants  and  often  much  leSS. 
rock  strata:  s,  soil  and  subsoil;   55,  sandstone;  TT  _  ,. 

sh,  shale;  LS,  Limestone.  Hard     Pan.  —  Sometimes 

the    subsoil   after  becoming 

very  closely  packed  and  dry  forms  a  kind  of  hard  layer  or 
stratum  of  earth  which  we  call  hard  pan.  Beneath  this  we  find 
rich  porous  earth,  but  it  is  of  no  service  to  the  plant  unless  in 
our  cultivation  we  break  through  the  hard  pan.  In  some  parts 

24 


THE  SOIL 


25 


of  Oklahoma,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico,  nurserymen  frequently 
place  a  stick  of  dynamite  in  this  hard  pan  layer  and  blast  open- 
ings in  it  where  young  trees  are  to  be  planted.  Unless  this  is 
done,  the  trees  grow  very  slowly  and  frequently  die. 

Origin  of  Soils.  —  All  soils  have  been  derived  directly  or  indi- 
rectly by  the  disintegration  of  rocks,  generally  through  the  pro- 
longed action  of  heat,  cold,  air,  water,  frost,  and  ice.  In  some 
cases,  however,  this  was  brought  about  by  the  action  of  low  but 


The  Mississippi  flowing  through  an  alluvial  plain. 

tiny  forms  of  vegetable  and  animal  life.  These  rocks  may  be 
roughly  put  into  two  classes:  (1)  igneous  rocks;  (2)  aqueous 
rocks. 

Igneous  rocks  are  those  which  have  been  produced  by  the  action 
of  fire.  Granite  and  trap  are  the  two  best  examples. 

Aqueous  Rocks.  —  These  are  produced  by  the  action  of  water. 
As  examples  of  aqueous  rocks,  limestone  and  red  sandstone  may 
be  mentioned. 

Other  Classes  of  Soils.  —  With  reference  to  their  origin,  soils 
may  be  divided  into :  (1)  sedentary  soils;  (2)  transported  soils,  con- 
sisting of  (a)  alluvial  soils,  (b)  drift  soils,  (c)  wind  blown  soils. 


26 


THE   SOIL 


Sedentary  Soils.  —  These  are  soils  which  rest  upon  the  rock  from 
which  they  were  formed.  Their  composition  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  rock  underneath,  with  vegetable  matter  added  by  the  growth 
of  plants  upon  them. 

Transported  Soils  are  those  that  have  been  deposited  from 
water  and  ice  after  being  transported,  perhaps,  hundreds  of  miles 
from  the  parent  rock. 

Alluvial  Soils.  —  Soils  deposited  from  water  are  called  alluvial. 
They  form  fertile  loams  and  are  usually  rich  in  organic  matter. 


Bowlders  deposited  by  a  glacier. 

These  alluvial  soils  occur  in  valleys,  river  beds,  and  also  in  beds  of 
former  lakes  now  far  inland. 

Drift  Soils.  —  Soils  deposited  from  ice  are  called  drift  soils. 
They  may  be  distinguished  from  others  by  the  presence  of  round 
rocks  or  bowlders.  They  are  formed  by  the  action  of  glaciers  which 
are  vast  bodies  of  ice  moving  like  a  river  carrying  vast  quantities 
of  earth  and  stone. 

The  Glacial  Age.  —  Many  hundreds  of  years  ago  there  came  a 
long  cold  winter  which  destroyed  nearly  all  forms  of  plant  and 
animal  life.  Snow  and  sleet  fell  day  after  day  until  an  immense 
glacier  or  body  of  ice  several  hundreds  of  feet  in  thickness  was 
formed.  One  of  these  glaciers,  a  thousand  feet  thick  and  a  thou- 


THE  SOIL  27 

sand  miles  wide,  extended  from  the  Arctic  region  southward  over  a 
large  part  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  United  States,  grinding 
rocks,  tearing  down  hills,  and  filling  up  valleys.  Many  of  these 
rocks  worked  their  way  through  the  ice,  and,  moving  with  the 
ice,  scoured  the  solid  rock  underneath  until  ground  into  powder. 
Finally,  when  the  glacier  melted,  the  fine  powdered  rock  was  de- 
posited and  formed  a  pro- 
ductive soil  made  so  by 
the  assembling  of  a  variety 
of  mineral  elements.  It  is 
thought  that  this  great 
mantle  of  ice  at  one  time 
reached  to  the  fortieth  par- 
allel of  latitude  in  North 
America. 

Wind-blown  Soils.  —  In 
some  countries  we  find  that 
heavy  winds  stir  up  the 
soil  and  move  it  from  one 
place  to  another.  This  is 
especially  likely  to  happen 
in  sandy  regions.  Fre- 
quently these  small  par- 
ticles of  sand  and  dust  will 
be  blown  with  such  violence 
that  they  will  scour  off  and 

dislodge  other  particles  of  soil  on  high  ridges  and  ledges  in  ex- 
posed places.  The  cutting  and  scouring  force  of  sand  when 
driven  by  high  winds  is  much  greater  than  one  would  ordinarily 
expect.  On  the  Great  Plains  in  the  West  telegraph  poles  are 
frequently  worn  away  and  cut  almost  through  at  the  base  where 
these  drifting  sands  come  in  contact  with  them.  Along  the 
Coast  Route  of  the  Santa  Fe  Pacific  in  California  the  sand  in 
some  places  drifts  so  upon  the  railroad  tracks  that  high  board 
fences  have  to  be  built  to  keep  the  tracks  from  being  covered 
by  the  drifting  sand.  Similar  conditions  exist  in  various  places 
along  the  Gulf  coast,  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  the  shores  of 
the  Great  Lakes  in  the  northern  and  northeastern  part  of  the 


28  THE  SOIL 

United  States.  Sometimes  in  Nebraska,  western  Oklahoma, 
Kansas,  and  Texas  there  are  dust  storms  of  such  violence  and 
intensity  that  the  heavens  are  darkened  and  obscured  as  if 
covered  with  a  heavy  cloud.  About  March  13,  1904,  a  dust 
storm  swept  over  western  Kansas  and  northwestern  Oklahoma, 
which  was  so  heavy  and  dense  that  day  was  turned  into  night 
of  inky  blackness.  The  next  morning  everything  was  covered 
with  a  heavy  layer  of  dust.  The  damage  from  the  storm  was 
slight,  while  the  enrichment  of  the  soil  by  the  addition  of 
these  accumulated  dust  particles  was  considerable.  In  many 
parts  of  the  United  States  we  find  these  wind-blown  soils,  and 
in  many  cases  they  are  fertile  and  very  productive. 


EXERCISES 

1.  With  a  soil  augur  ascertain  the  depth  of  soil  and  subsoil  in  your 
locality. 

2.  At  what  depth  is  rock  found  ? 

3.  Classify  the  soils  found  in  your  vicinity. 

4.  Secure  samples  of  the  various  rocks  in  your  county  and  classify  them. 

5.  Make  a  mixture  of  rocks,  pebbles,  sand,  and  soil,  and  stir  them  up 
well  with  a  stick  or  iron  poker  after  adding  enough  water  to  make  a  thin 
paste  of  the  soil.     Allow  the  mixture  to  settle  and  note  the  results.     Ex- 
plain.    A  fruit  jar  or  a  candy  jar  will  be  found  useful  for  this  experiment. 
If  this  cannot  be  had,  use  smaller  pebbles  and  place  the  mixture  in  a  glass 
tumblei . 

6.  Build  up  a  soil  bed  of  sand,  gravel,  and  soil  and  cause  a  stream  of 
water  to  pass  through  the  bed ;    note  the  shifting  and  arrangement  of  soil 
particles.     Explain. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  soil. 

2.  Define  subsoil. 

3.  What  is  hard  pan  ? 

4.  Discuss  the  origin  of  soil. 

5.  Discuss  rocks. 

6.  Describe  igneous  rocks. 

7.  Describe  aqueous  rocks. 

8.  Discuss  sedentary  soils. 

9.  Give  the  classes  of  transported  soils. 

10.  Discuss  alluvial  soils. 

11.  Discuss  drift  soils. 


THE  SOIL  29 

12.  Give  an  account  of  the  glacial  age. 

13.  Discuss  wind-blown  soils. 

14.  Discuss  the  effect  of  dust  storms  on  soil. 

REFERENCES 
The  Soil,  F.  H.  King. 
Agriculture,  Welborn. 
Agriculture,  Soule  &  Turpin. 
Soils,  Burkett. 
Bulletin  Extract  No.  169,  Soil  Investigations,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


VI.    SOIL   INGREDIENTS 

THE  most  important  ingredients  of  soil  are  sand,  clay,  lime, 
and  organic  matter. 

Sand.  —  Quartz  sand  is  composed  chiefly  of  silica.  It  contains 
very  little  nutriment  for  the  plant,  but  it  makes  soils  porous  and 
loose,  so  that  air  and  moisture  may  reach  the  roots  of  the  plant.  It 
also  raises  the  temperature  of  the  soil,  as  it  is  rapidly  heated  by  the 
sun's  rays.  Water  works  its  way  very  easily  through  sand  and 
dissolves  no  appreciable  amount  of  it.  Hence  it  holds  but  little 
moisture  and  soon  dries  out.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  very  sandy  soils  are  poorly  adapted  to  plant  growth. 

Cla^  consists  of  very  fine  particles  of  certain  rocks.  Ordinarily 
it  contains  a  mixture  of  silica  and  alumina  with  certain  impurities, 
especially  potash.  Although  not  a  valuable  plant  food,  clay  has 
the  important  property  of  absorbing  and  retaining  phosphoric 
acid,  ammonia,  lime,  and  other  substances  which  are  needed  in 
plant  nutrition.  Pure  clay  has  no  grit  in  it,  but  feels  smooth  and 
velvety.  When  mixed  with  water  it  becomes  sticky  and  forms  a 
pasty  mass  like  putty.  Silt  is  like  clay  in  composition  but  its 
particles  are  larger. 

Sand  and  Clay  Compared.  —  If  we  examine  sand  and  clay 
closely,  we  find  many  points  of  difference.  Moist  clay  sticks  closely 
together  and  may  be  molded  into  almost  any  form,  while  sand 
readily  falls  apart.  Water  readily  passes  through  sand,  while 
clay  retains  it.  The  sun's  rays  are  more  readily  absorbed  by  sand 
than  by  clay,  and  hence  a  soil  containing  sand  is  always  warmer 
than  one  containing  clay.  If  you  have  a  thermometer,  compare 
the  temperature  of  a  pint  of  sand  with  the  temperature  of  a  pint 
of  pulverized  clay.  Then  place  each  sample  in  a  tomato  can  and 
after  pouring  a  moderate  quantity  of  water  on  each  see  which  one 
dries  out  first. 

Loam.  —  A  soil  containing  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  is  called 
a  loam.  If  the  clay  predominates,  it  is  known  as  a  clay  loam. 
If  the  sand  is  largely  in  excess,  it  is  called  a  sandy  loam. 

30 


SOIL  INGREDIENTS  31 

Lime  is  a  valuable  constituent  of  plants  and  is  beneficial  to  the 
soil  in  many  ways.  It  aids  in  the  formation  of  nitrates  in  the  soil 
and  promotes  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter.  When  pres- 
ent it  overcomes  the  sticky  tendency  of  the  particles  of  clay  and 
renders  the  passage  of  water  through  them  very  easy.  The  ab- 
sorptive and  retentive  power  of  sandy  soils  is  improved  by  it. 
In  many  northern  climates,  like  Alaska,  lime  is  necessary  to 
neutralize  the  acids  in  the  soil,  and  when  lime  is  not  used  culti- 
vated plants  will  grow  scarcely  at  all  in  such  soils. 

Humus.  —  By  humus  we  ordinarily  mean  the  decaying  organic 
matter  in  soils  made  up  of  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
etc.  The  fertility  of  virgin  soils  is  largely  due  to  the  nitrogenous 
humus  present,  which  is  derived  largely  from  the  dead  roots, 
branches,  and  leaves  of  a  former  vegetation. 

Humus  absorbs  a  great  deal  of  water  by  reason  of  its  porosity, 
and  this  water  tends  to  keep  the  soil  cool.  It  also  warms  some  soils 
by  absorbing  the  sun's  rays.  It  is  valuable  as  a  manure  because 
of  its  power  to  supply  nitrogen.  It  is  also  valuable  because  of 
its  power  to  absorb  and  hold  ammonia  and  ammonia  salts.  It 
promotes  chemical  action  in  the  soil  and  supplies  the  carbon 
dioxide  needed  for  the  disintegration  and  solution  of  some  of  the 
mineral  matters  in  the  soil  used  as  plant  foods. 

Humus  greatly  improves  the  texture  of  certain  soils.  It  binds 
sandy  soils  and  lightens  heavy  clays,  when  applied  in  proper 
quantities.  For  soils  naturally  too  dry  for  cultivation  or  likely 
to  bake  and  crack  open  during  a  summer  drought,  additions  of 
humus  are  very  beneficial.  Wet  soils  are  not  benefited  by  it,  for  it 
tends  to  hold  the  moisture. 

The  greatest  amount  of  humus  is  found  in  temperate  climates, 
where  the  soil  is  too  damp  and  cold  to  permit  the  rapid  decay  of 
organic  matter  during  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year.  In 
tropical  regions  and  arid  regions  the  amount  of  humus  found  is 
relatively  small  compared  with  the  amount  in  temperate  climates. 

The  importance  of  humus  as  a  plant  food  is  still  questioned  by 
some  authorities.  Professor  King  says:  "  It  used  to  be  held  that 
any  soil  deficient  in  humus  was,  because  of  this  shortage,  neces- 
sarily poor  or  sterile;  but  it  is  now  known  that  in  arid  regions, 
where  humus  in  the  soil  is  very  scanty  or  even  wanting,  large  crops 


32  SOIL  INGREDIENTS 

are  produced  when  only  an  abundance  of  water  is  supplied.  Ex- 
periments in  water  culture,  too,  have  proved  that  when  nitrogen 
is  supplied  to  plants  in  the  form  of  purely  inorganic  or  mineral 
nitrates,  plants  will  thrive  in  the  complete  absence  of  humus." 

EXERCISES 

1.  Secure  samples  of  clay,  sand,  and  loam.     Expose  them  to  the  action  of 
the  sun  for  an  hour  and  note  the  temperature. 

2.  If  possible  secure  samples  of  humus  and  mix  with  each  of  the  soils 
previously  mentioned.     After  moistening  them  thoroughly  repeat  the  pre- 
vious experiment  and  note  temperatures  as  before.     Explain  the  results. 

3.  Secure  dry  samples  of  clay,  sand,  and  soil  and  weigh  each  sample. 
Add  equal  weights  of  water  to  each  and  after  exposure  to  the  action  of  the 
sun  for  a  day  record  the  weights  again.     Note  results  and  explain. 

4.  Plant  seed  in  each  sample  of  soil  and  note  the  time  required  for  germi- 
nation.    Explain  the  results. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  some  of  the  soil  ingredients. 

2.  Discuss  sand  and  its  value  as  a  soil  maker. 

3.  Discuss  clay  and  its  properties. 

4.  Of  what  does  clay  consist  ? 

5.  In  what  way  is  clay  valuable  to  plant  growth  ? 

6.  Compare  sand  and  clay. 

7.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  loam. 

8.  Discuss  lime  and  its  action  on  soils. 

9.  Discuss  humus  and  its'  formation. 

10.  What  effect  has  humus  on  sandy  soils  ? 

11.  Discuss  the  action  of  humus  on  clay  soils. 

12.  Should  humus  be  used  on  wet  lands  ?     Why? 

13.  Where  is  the  greatest  amount  of  humus  found  ?     Why  ? 

14.  What  does  Professor  King  say  about  the  importance  of  humus  as  a 
plant  food  ? 

REFERENCES 

The  Soil,  King. 

Soils,  Burkett. 

The  Soil  of  the  Farm,  Scott  &  Morton. 

Agriculture,  Storer. 


VII.    TYPES  OF   SOIL 

Light  and  Heavy  Soils.  —  We  frequently  hear  farmers  speak  of 
light  and  of  heavy  soils,  but  we  should  remember  that  the  terms 
light  and  heavy  as  applied  to  soils  have  usually  no  reference  what- 
ever to  weight,  but  refer  solely  to  the  amount  of  force  which  has  to 
be  exerted  in  tilling  the  land.  In  fact;  most  so-called  light  soils 
really  weigh  more  than  the  heavy  soils.  Peat-laden  soils  are 
usually  light  in  both  senses  of  the  word.  Schuebler  in  his  experi- 
ments, after  heating  a  cubic  foot  of  various  soils  for  half  an  hour 
at  temperatures  ranging  from  100°  to  122°  F.,  found  the  following 
weights: 

Quartz  Sand  .         .         .         .         .  100-110  Ib. 

Clay 68-75  Ib. 

Garden  Loam          ....  76  Ib. 

Clayey  Loam 88  Ib. 

Vegetable  Mold      ....  31  Ib. 

Peat 30-50  Ib. 

Warm  and  Cold  Soils. —  Soils  are  called  warm  or  cold  according 
to  their  power  of  holding  the  sun's  heat.  The  amount  of  heat  taken 
up  and  retained  varies  greatly  for  different  soils.  Oemler  in  his 
experiments  with  air-dried  soils  obtained  the  following  results: 

KIND  OP  SOIL  PERCENTAGE  OP  ABSORPTION 

Moor  Earth 100 

Sandy  Humus 95 

Loam  Rich  in  Humus        .         .         .         .90 

Clay  Rich  in  Humus         ....  87 

Light  Gray  Clay 81 

Coarse  Sand 84 

Pure  Chalk 87 

Besides  the  nature  of  the  soil  constituents  we  find  that  the  color 
of  soils  also  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  temperature.  A  dark 
soil  is  always  warmer  than  a  light  soil.  In  southern  France  it  is 
found  that  chalk  soils  are  always  late  because  of  their  color.  In 
some  mountainous  countries  of  Europe  the  inhabitants  procure 
black  earth,  which  they  sprinkle  over  the  snow  in  the  spring  in 

PRAC.  AGRICUL. — 3  33 


34  TYPES  OF  SOIL 

order  to  hasten  the  melting  of  the  snow.  Thio  is  done  because  in 
such  elevated  situations  the  summers  are  of  such  short  duration 
that  it  is  of  great  importance  to  save  time  in  getting  the  ground 
ready  for  the  seed  and  having  them  sprout  as  soon  as  possible. 
Gasparin  in  his  experiments  found  as  much  as  twelve  to  fourteen 
degrees  difference  in  temperature  between  two  samples  of  soil 
similarly  exposed  to  sunlight  if  one  of  the  soils  was  made  white 
by  covering  it  with  magnesia  and  the  other  made  dark  by  covering 
it  with  lampblack. 

The  amount  of  heat  absorbed  is  also  affected  by  the  composition 
of  soils  and  the  fineness  of  the  soil  particles.  Clay  soils  are  gener- 
ally much  colder  than  sandy  soils,  but  coarse  rocky  soils  often 
suffer  from  extremes  of  temperature. 

The  matter  of  location  or  relative  position  is  also  an  important 
factor.  We  know  from  observation  that  the  southern  sides  of 
hills,  walls,  or  other  wind-breaks  are  generally  the  warmest.  In 
the  vicinity  of  Boston  farmers  usually  choose  the  southern  slopes 
of  hills,  even  where  the  soil  seems  to  be  poor  and  gravelly,  for 
growing  early  vegetables.  But  light  loose  soils  in  such  positions 
frequently  become  overheated  and  so  dry  in  midsummer  that 
crops  growing  upon  them  soon  wither  away  and  perish.  The  direc- 
tion of  the  cultivation  is  also  an  important  matter  that  should  not 
be  overlooked.  Experiments  show  that  crops  cultivated  in  beds 
running  from  north  to  south  will  be  more  equally  warmed  than  if 
the  beds  run  east  and  west.  In  very  many  cases  it  is  found  that 
flat  cultivation  insures  a  more  equable  temperature  than  the  oppo- 
site arrangement. 

Farm  Soils.  —  We  find  that  soils  vary  greatly  in  the  way  they 
are  made  up.  It  is  obvious  that  different  kinds  of  rocks  in  their 
decay  make  different  kinds  of  soil.  The  principal  types  of  soil  are 
as  follows: 

1.  Sandy  Soils 


Classes  with  reference  to  constituents 


2.  Clay  Soils 

3.  Loamy  Soils 

4.  Limestone 

5.  Buckshot  Soils 

6.  Vegetable  Soils 

7.  Alkali  Soils 


TYPES   OF   SOIL  35 

1.  Arid 

Classes  with  reference  to  moisture  <!  2.  Semiarid 

3.  Humid 

Sandy  Soils.  — A  sandy  soil  contains  over  70  per  cent  of  sand. 
Such  soils  are  easy  to  work  but  are  poor  in  plant  food.  They  ab- 
sorb and  retain  but  little  moisture.  Quick-growing  crops  are  best 
adapted  to  this  kind  of  soil. 

Clay  Soils.  — Soils  which  contain  over  50  per  cent  of  clay  are 
called  clay  soils,  and  may  be  easily  recognized  by  their  sticky 
character.  Such  soils  are  cold  and  hard  to  work  and  suffer  from 
extremes  in  both  wet  and  dry  weather.  Cereals  and  grasses  are 
best  adapted  to  this  kind  of  soil. 

Loamy  Soils.  —  Soils  which  consist  of  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay 
are  called  loams.  They  may  be  classified  as  follows:  (1)  sandy 
loams,  containing  from  10  to  20  per  cent  of  clay;  (2)  ordinary 
loam,  containing  from  20  to  30  per  cent  of  clay;  (3)  clay  loam,  con- 
taining from  30  to  50  per  cent  of  clay;  (4)  limestone  loam,  contain- 
ing from  20  to  40  per  cent  of  clay.  Loams  are  suitable  for 
nearly  all  farming  purposes.  This  kind  of  soil  is  frequently 
found  in  the  great  black  prairie  belts  in  Missouri,  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  Texas,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  and  in  some  of  the  eastern 
portions  of  Oklahoma. 

Limestone  Soils.  —  Calcareous  or  limestone  soils  are  those  which 
contain  20  per  cent  or  more  of  lime.  Such  soils  crumble  readily 
and  are  easy  to  cultivate. 

Vegetable  or  Swamp  Soils.  —  Such  soils  consist  almost  entirely 
of  vegetable  matter  more  or  less  decayed  and  are  usually  found  in 
lowlands  or  low  places.  The  best  examples  of  this  soil  are  found 
in  the  Great  Dismal  Swamp  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  and 
the  Everglades  of  Florida.  When  well  drained  and  properly 
treated,  such  soils  are  very  productive. 

Buckshot  Soil.  —  Some  limestone  lands  in  Texas,  Oklahoma,  and 
other  States  contain  so  much  lime  that  the  soil  is  very  sticky  and 
gummy  when  wet,  but  it  readily  crumbles  into  small  particles  or 
pellets  when  dry.  For  this  reason  it  is  often  called  gumbo  or 
buckshot  land.  In  the  northeastern  part  of  Oklahoma  patches  of 
this  kind  of  soil  are  sometimes  encountered,  while  in  Texas  it  is 


36 


TYPES   OF  SOIL 


quite  common  on  the  black  prairie  lands.     It  is  especially  notice- 
able in  Dallas  County,  Texas. 

Arid  Soils.  —  In  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  some 
of  the  other  western  States  there  is  so  little  rainfall  that  the  soils 

are  practically  unwatered  and 
are  too  dry  for  the  growth  of 
ordinary  vegetation.  In  such 
regions  only  a  few  hardy  plants 
such  as  the  Spanish  bayonet, 
the  yucca,  and  various  kinds 
of  cactus  will  grow  without 
irrigation. 

Alkali  Soils  are  those  contain- 
ing large  deposits  of  mineral 
salts  which  check  vegetable 
growth.  Alkali  soils  are  not 
generally  encountered  in  humid 
regions  because  the  rain  leaches 
out  the  saline  materials.  These 
soils  occur  in  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States  in  the  arid 
or  semiarid  regions.  The  alkali 
usually  present  is  carbonate  of 
soda.  When  more  than  one 
fourth  of  1  per  cent  is  present, 
Giant  cactus,  Arizona  ^  prevents  germination  of  seed. 

It  makes  the  soil  break  up  in  clods  and  the  furrows  do  not  crumble 
to  powder  in  drying,  which  is  an  essential  feature  of  good  tillage. 
It  may  be  remedied  by  tile  draining  and  suitable  irrigation.  If  we 
have  irrigation  without  the  drainage,  we  only  aggravate  the  diffi- 
culty and  increase  the  accumulation  of  saline  matters  at  or  near  the 
surface.  For  the  water  thus  used  carries  the  alkali  with  it,  but  as 
it  does  not  reach  the  natural  drainage  it  rises  again  when  evapora- 
tion begins;  and  if  all  the  water  evaporates,  the  whole  of  the 
alkali  will  come  towards  the  surface.  In  parts  of  Argentina 
it  is  said  that  the  whole  country  is  quickly  covered  with  scattering 
plants  while  the  rains  last,  but  as  soon  as  the  dry  hot  weather 
comes,  the  alkali  rises  and  kills  nearly  all  vegetation.  The  ground 


TYPES  OF  SOIL  37 

becomes  whitened  with  incrustations  of  alkali  in  many  places  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  looks  like  a  white  mantle  of  snow.  A  large 
part  of  the  lands  in  the  arid  regions  of  the  United  States  are 
alkaline  in  their  nature,  and  white  alkaline  incrustations  may  often 
be  seen  along  the  banks  of  streams  and  of  many  of  the  irrigating 
ditches  found  in  this  region.  Such  soils  are  often  very  fertile,  as 
they  have  not  been  leached  out  by  heavy  rains;  consequently 
they  yield  large  returns  when  properly  cultivated  and  sufficiently 
irrigated.  The  Salt  River  Valley  and  the  Gila  Valley  of  Arizona, 
the  Pecos  Valley  of  New  Mexico,  together  with  portions  of  Cali- 
fornia, Colorado,  and  Nevada,  are  striking  examples  of  this  fact. 

Semiarid  Lands.  —  In  northwestern  Texas,  and  also  in  the 
western  portions  of  Oklahoma,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska  we  find  lands 
that  are  only  half  watered  and  are  designated  as  semiarid  lands. 
These  soils  are  of  a  loose  sandy  nature  and  contain  sufficient  mois- 
ture to  insure  a  good  growth  of  wild  prairie  grass  and  buffalo  grass 
during  the  greater  portion  of  the  year.  The  rainfall  here  varies 
from  five  to  twenty-five  inches. 

Humid  Soils.  — These  are  soils  that  have  plenty  of  rain  and 
moisture.  Vegetation  of  such  soils  is  of  rapid  growth  on  account 
of  the  moisture  present,  but  they  really  contain  much  less  plant 
food  than  arid  lands  because  the  heavy  rains  wash  away  the  nutri- 
tive elements  of  the  soil.  Characteristic  soils  of  this  kind  are  found 
in  the  Mississippi  River  Valley  region  and  in  many  other  parts  of 
the  United  States.  In  some  portions  of  the  State  of  Washington 
the  rainfall  frequently  is  over  one  hundred  inches  per  year. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Secure  a  pint  of  sand,  a  pint  of  clay,  and  a  pint  of  ordinary  soil. 
Weigh  each  and  record  your  results. 

2.  Heat  each  sample  for  some  time  and  weigh  again.     Explain  the  re- 
sults. 

3.  Place  each  sample  in  a  vessel  and  add  much  water.     Drain  off  the 
water  not  absorbed  and  weigh  again.     Note  results  and  explain. 

4.  Expose  each  sample  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  wind.     Note  results 
and  explain. 

5.  Plant  some  seed  in  each  sample  of  soil  and  watch  the  growth  rate  and 
development. 

6.  Test  the  temperature  of  the  samples  of  soil  used  above  and  compare  the 
temperatures. 


38  TYPES  OF  SOIL 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  light  and  heavy  soils. 

2.  Discuss  warm  and  cold  soils. 

3.  What  effect  has  color  on  soils  ? 

4.  What  effect  has  location  on  the  temperature  of  soils  ? 

5.  Which  will  be  warmed  more  equally,  plants  set  in  rows  running  east 
and  west  or  those  running  north  and  south  ?     Why  ? 

6.  Name  the  classes  of  soils  with  reference  to  constituents. 

7.  Name  the  classes  of  soils  with  reference  to  moisture  content. 

8.  What  are  sandy  soils  ?     Clay  soils  ? 

9.  Discuss  loamy  soils. 

10.  What  are  limestone  soils  ?     Vegetable  soils  ? 

11.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  buckshot  soil. 

12.  Discuss  arid  soils  and  alkali  soils. 

13.  What  are  semiarid  soils? 

14.  Discuss  humid  soils. 

REFERENCES 

The  Soil,  King. 
Soils,  Burkett. 
The  Soil  of  the  Farm,  Scott  &  Morton. 


VIII.     CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION   OF   THE   SOIL 

THE  substances  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  soil  may 
be  roughly  divided  into  two  general  classes:  organic  and  inorganic. 
The  organic  elements  are  derived  chiefly  from  the  decay  of  plants 
and  animals  and  comprise  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  soil.  The 
inorganic  elements  are  derived  from  the  decay  of  rocks  which  form 
the  surface. 

The  Metallic  Elements.  —  More  than  90  per  cent  of  the  soil  is 
mineral  matter  composed  of  metals  and  non-metals.  The  metals 
which  are  of  the  most  importance  to  agriculture  are: 

Aluminum  Manganese 

Calcium  Potassium 

Iron  Sodium 
Magnesium 

Aluminum  is  a  beautiful  white  metal  which  is  very  abundant  in 
the  earth's  surface.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  constituents  of  clay,  which 
plays  an  important  part  in  the  water-holding  power  of  soils. 

Calcium  is  a  yellowish  colored  metal  that  enters  into  the  compo- 
sition of  limestone  and  gypsum.  In  limestone  it  occurs  in  the  form 
of  calcium  carbonate  and  in  gypsum  it  occurs  as  calcium  sulphate. 

Magnesium  is  a  hard  white  metal  and  is  an  indispensable  plant 
food.  Both  magnesium  and  calcium  collect  chiefly  in  the  seeds  of 
plants. 

Potassium  is  a  soft  white  metal  which  is  widely  distributed  in 
the  earth's  crust.  It  is  one  of  the  essential  elements  of  plant  food. 
Its  compounds  are  very  soluble  and  hence  are  rapidly  leached 
out  and  carried  away  in  drainage  waters. 

Sodium  is  a  soft  white  metal  so  light  that  it  readily  floats  on 
water.  It  is  widely  distributed,  and  in  the  form  of  sodium  nitrate 
it  is  largely  used  as  a  fertilizer.  Vast  beds  of  this  nitrate  are  found 
in  Chile.  Sodium  is  also  the  basis  of  common  salt,  which  is  known 
to  chemists  as  sodium  chloride. 

39 


40  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION   OF  THE   SOIL 

Iron  is  one  of  our  very  common  metals.  United  with  oxygen 
and  water  it  forms  the  yellow  and  red  ochres  used  in  painting. 
It  also  enters  largely  into  the  coloring  matter  of  red  and  yellow 
soils.  Iron  is  an  important  plant  food  and  is  very  abundant  in 
the  soils  everywhere.  It  forms  generally  from  1  to  7  per  cent  of 
the  soil. 

Manganese  is  a  grayish  white  metal  and  is  very  heavy.  Like 
iron,  it  is  somewhat  abundant  and  is  a  valuable  constituent  of 
the  soil. 

Non-metallic  Elements.  —  The  elements  found  in  this  class  are 
of  very  great  importance  to  plant  growth  and  form  a  large  part  of 
its  food.  They  may  be  grouped  as  follows: 

Oxygen  Chlorine 

Silicon  Phosphorus 

Carbon  Nitrogen 

Sulphur  Fluorine 

Hydrogen  Boron 

Oxygen  is  a  colorless  substance  which  comprises  about  23  per 
cent  by  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  eight  ninths  of  the  weight 
of  water,  and  50  per  cent  of  the  earth's  solid  crust.  In  gaseous 
form  it  is  the  life-giving  principle  of  the  atmosphere,  without 
which  animal  life  is  impossible. 

Silicon  comprises  about  one  fourth  of  the  earth's  soil  and  is  the 
second  most  abundant  element  of  the  soil  ingredients.  It  is  found 
in  the  husks  of  grain  and  in  the  tissues  of  nearly  all  plants,  but 
its  presence  is  not  indispensable. 

Carbon  occurs  in  the  soil  as  a  part  of  the  humus  or  organic  matter, 
but  the  plant  gets  the  carbon  of  its  food  from  the  carbon  dioxide 
of  the  air.  Gaseous  carbon  dioxide  is  the  product  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  reactions  which  take  place  on  the  earth's  surface.  It  is 
generated  in  the  combustion  of  carbon  and  organic  matters,  in 
the  respiration  of  animals,  and  in  the  processes  of  decay  and 
fermentation.  It  also  issues  from  the  soil  in  many  volcanic 
regions. 

In  plants  carbon  appears  as  one  of  the  elements  of  starch  and 
it  is  especially  abundant  in  the  seeds  of  leguminous  plants,  in 
cereals,  and  in  potatoes. 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION   OF  THE  SOIL  41 

Sulphur  is  a  pale  yellow  substance  which  generally  occurs  in  the 
soil  united  with  some  metal  as  iron,  lime,  or  magnesia.  The 
characteristic  odors  of  garlic,  onions,  and  some  other  vegetables 
are  due  to  the  presence  of  sulphur.  It  is  an  essential  part  of  many 
organic  compounds  in  the  tissues  of  plants  and  animals.  Its 
presence  in  eggs  is  readily  shown  by  its  action  on  silverware,  which 
it  blackens. 

Hydrogen  is  a  colorless  substance  which  may  be  obtained  in 
gaseous  form  by  the  decomposition  of  water.  It  plays  its  greatest 
part  in  agriculture  while  combined  with  oxygen  in  the  form  of 
water,  which  is  so  essential  to  both  animal  and  plant  life. 

Chlorine  is  a  greenish  yellow  substance  which  has  a  suffocating 
odor.  It  is  generally  combined  with  sodium  and  in  this  form  is 
known  as  common  salt,  which  occurs  in  all  soils  and  natural  waters. 
It  is  present  in  most  plants  and  seems  to  be  an  essential  element. 

Phosphorus  is  a  soft  pale  yellow  substance  obtained  from  bone 
ash.  It  is  present  in  several  forms  in  the  soil  and  is  an  important 
ingredient.  A  part  of  the  phosphate  found  in  bone  ash  and  in 
nature  is  insoluble  in  water  until  treated  with  sulphuric  acid. 

Nitrogen  is  a  colorless  substance  comprising  in  gaseous  form 
about  four  fifths  of  the  atmosphere  and  is  a  constituent  of  animal 
and  vegetable  matter.  In  spite  of  its  great  abundance  in  the 
air,  it  is  one  of  the  least  abundant  in  the  soil.  Here  it  occurs 
as  a  part  of  the  humus  and  the  fragments  of  the  decaying  tissues 
of  plants  and  animals.  Nitrogen  is  being  constantly  taken  from 
the  soil  in  the  form  of  nitrates,  and  in  order  to  preserve  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  nitrogen  must  constantly  be  supplied.  This  is  usually 
done  by  allowing  nitrogenous  organic  matter  to  decay  upon  the 
soil  or  by  adding  to  the  soil  a  fertilizer  containing  nitrogen  com- 
pounds. 

Fluorine  is  a  pale  yellow  substance  which  has  a  powerful  odor. 
United  with  lime  it  occurs  in  fluorite.  Fluorine  is  a  constituent 
of  the  blood,  milk,  teeth,  and  bones  of  animals. 

Boron.  —  Borax  is  the  most,  familiar  compound  in  which  boron 
occurs.  In  this  form  it  is  largely  used  as  a  preservative  for 
sausage,  canned  meats,  fish,  milk,  butter,  beer,  and  wine.  Boron 
is  not  a  very  common  element,  but  in  the  form  of  borax  is  found  in 
the  United  States,  principally  in  California  and  Arizona. 


42 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION   OF  THE  SOIL 


Below  is  a  diagram  showing  roughly  the  distributions  of  elements 
in  the  earth's  crust.  Of  the  last  4  %,  1.3  %  is  magnesium,  1  %  is 
sodium,  1  %  is  potassium,  and  all  the  remaining  elements  do  not 
quite  equal  1  %  of  the  earth's  crust. 


OXYGEN 
50 


QUESTIONS   AND   EXERCISES 

1.  Name  the  two  great  classes  of  elements  that  enter  into  the  soil. 

2.  Name  the  metallic  elements. 

3.  Describe  (a)  aluminum,  (6)  calcium. 

4.  Discuss  (a)  magnesium,  (6)  potassium. 

5.  Describe  (a)  sodium,  (6)  iron,  (c)  manganese. 

6.  Name  some  of  the  non-metallic  elements  of  the  soil. 

7.  Discuss  (a)  oxygen,  (6)  silicon,  (c)  carbon. 

8.  Describe  (a)  sulphur,  (6)  hydrogen,  (c)  chlorine. 

9.  Discuss  (a)  phosphorus,  (6)  nitrogen. 
10.  Describe  (a)  fluorine,  (6)  boron. 

REFERENCES 

Chemistry  of  the  Farm,  Warrington. 

First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  Vivian. 

Soil  Physics  Laboratory  Guide,  Stevenson  and  Schwab. 


IX.     SOIL   MOISTURE 

WE  have  just  seen  that  the  soil  is  richly  stored  with  all  kinds  of 
food  for  plants,  but  none  of  it  can  be  absorbed  so  long  as  it  remains 
in  a  dry  state.  The  minerals  of  the  soils  are  dissolved  by  the  water 
which  conveys  them  to  the  roots  and  from  there  through  the  stem 
and  branches  to  the  leaves,  where  they  are  prepared  for  food  and 
taken  wherever  needed.  The  cells  in  all  parts  of  the  plant, 
even  to  the  remotest  root  tips,  are  fed  by  this  leaf-formed  food. 
It  is  estimated  that  more  than  four  fifths  of  the  weight  of  a  growing 
plant  is  water.  Besides  the  water  found  in  the  plant  a  large  por- 
tion is  being  constantly  exhaled  by  the  leaves.  This  may  be  read- 
ily proved  in  two  ways.  If  we  put  a  drinking  glass  or  a  fruit  jar 
over  a  small  growing  plant,  in  a  short  time  the  inner  surface  of  the 
vessel  will  be  covered  with  moisture.  Again,  if  we  place  a  freshly 
cut  leaf  or  twig  with  its  stem  in  water,  it  will  live  for  some  time ;  but 
if  we  place  it  in  the  vessel  without  adding  the  water,  it  soon  withers 
and  dries  to  a  crisp.  It  is  estimated  that  an  acre  of  grass  land 
will  exhale  in  a  day's  time  more  than  thirty  hogsheads  of  water. 
As  a  general  rule  we  can  say  that  more  than  three  hundred  pounds 
of  water  pass  through  a  plant  and  are  exhaled  or  transpired  through 
its  leaves  for  every  pound  of  dry  matter  held  by  the  plant.  Young 
plants  generally  give  off  more  water  in  this  way  than  those  which 
are  older  and  more  mature. 

Kinds  of  Moisture.  —  Soils  may  be  regarded  as  made  up  of  a 
number  of  particles  of  different  shapes  and  sizes  thrown  loosely 
together,  with  spaces  between  them.  In  dry  soils  these  spaces 
are  generally  filled  with  air;  but  as  the  soil  becomes  moist  or  wet, 
the  water  drives  the  air  out.  Soil  moisture  may  be  classified 
as  follows:  (1)  ground  water;  (2)  capillary  water;  (3)  hygro- 
scopic water. 

Ground  Water.  — The  rain  as  it  falls  to  the  ground  usually 
sinks  through  the  soil  until  it  reaches  an  impervious  layer  of  hard 
pan  or  rock.  At  such  depth  it  collects  and  forms  what  we  call 

43 


44  SOIL   MOISTURE} 

ground  water.  It  is  also  called  the  water  table.  In  many  parts  of 
Florida  the  water  table  is  within  a  foot  of  the  surface.  In  other 
places  it  varies  from  a  few  feet  to  several  hundred.  When  the 
ground  water  is  near  the  surface  it  fills  all  the  spaces  of  the  soil; 
and  as  the  air  cannot  enter  the  roots  of  the  plants,  they  cannot  grow 
and  soon  die.  In  many  cases  this  can  be  remedied  by  proper  drain- 
age. Ground  water  serves  its  purpose  better  when  it  sinks  below 
the  surface  of  the  soil  about  three  or  four  feet. 

Capillary  Water.  —  We  have  frequently  noticed  that  the  oil 
passes  upward  through  a  lamp  wick  as  fast  as  it  burns  in  a  lamp. 
When  we  examine  the  wick,  we  find  that  it  contains  a  number  of 
small  spaces  or  pores  connecting  with  one  another.  The  oil 
passes  from  one  space  to  another,  and  the  force  which  causes  it  to 
rise  is  called  capillary  attraction  or  capillarity.  Water  will  rise 
in  the  same  way  through  the  small  spaces  between  the  soil  par- 
ticles. In  dry  weather  water  rises  from  the  moist  soil  below  to 
supply  the  plants.  If  we  leave  a  plank  on  the  ground  until  the 
next  day  and  pick  it  up  again,  we  find  that  the  lower  surface  is  cov- 
ered with  moisture  brought  from  the  ground  by  capillarity.  A 
loose  blanket  of  plowed  soil  acts  in  the  same  way  and  serves  as  a 
trap  to  hold  the  moisture.  From  this  we  learn  that  frequent 
shallow  plowing  in  dry  weather  is  one  of  the  best  possible  ways  of 
saving  soil  moisture.  This  is  a  principle  in  "  dry  farming." 
Capillarity  is  feeble  in  sandy  soils  because  its  particles  are  so  far 
apart.  Many  clay  soils,  on  the  other  hand,  are  glutinous  and  the 
grains  enlarge  upon  becoming  wet  and  greatly  retard  the  capillary 
movement.  Capillarity  wrorks  best  in  soils  of  medium  texture. 

Hygroscopic  Water.  —  Every  particle  of  dust,  no  matter  how 
dry  it  appears,  contains  some  moisture.  Its  presence  can  be  de- 
tected by  heating  a  small  quantity  of  dry  dust  in  a  test  tube  to  a 
temperature  of  212°  F.  On  allowing  it  to  cool,  drops  of  moisture 
will  collect  on  the  sides  of  the  tube.  The  soil  will  suffer  a  loss  in 
weight  from  1  per  cent  to  10  per  cent  or  more.  Again,  in  some 
brick-making  plants  where  hard  pressed  brick  are  manufactured, 
the  dry  clay  is  put  in  molds,  and  after  being  subjected  to  heavy 
pressure  the  clay  comes  out  looking  as  damp  as  if  it  had  been  mixed 
with  water,  although  not  a  drop  of  water  is  added  to  it  at  any  time. 

Uses  of  Soil  Moisture.  —  We  may  mention  four  important  pur- 


SOIL   MOISTURE  45 

poses  which  soil  moisture  serves:  (1)  dissolving  plant  foods; 
(2)  transferring  plant  foods;  (3)  supplying  plant  food  in  itself; 
(4)  regulating  soil  temperature  and  plant  temperature. 

Plant  Food  Solvent.  —  The  mineral  elements  are  dissolved  out  of 
the  soil  by  water  charged  with  carbon  dioxide  and  humic  acid 
and  are  made  available  for  the  use  of  the  plant. 

The  Vehicle  of  Plant  Foods.  —  The  passage  of  liquids  through 
a  membrane  is  called  osmosis,  and  it  plays  an  important  part  in 
plant  structure  and  plant  growth. '  The  soil  water  containing  the 
soluble  food  elements  is  taken  up  through  the  membranes  covering 
the  roots  of  the  plant  and  passes  through  the  young  wood  of  the 
plant  upward  to  the  leaves  which  manufacture  the  starch  and  sugar. 
These  leaf-formed  foods  are  then  carried  downward  through  the 
bark  to  all  parts  of  the  plant. 

Water  as  a  Source  of  Plant  Food.  —  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  make 
many  plants  grow  in  water  provided  the  water  contains  some  nu- 
trient salts,  or  the  stored  food  in  the  cotyledons  of  the  seedling  is 
available.  Hyacinths  and  narcissus  bulbs  may  be  made  to  bloom  in 
water  cultures.  Beans,  corn,  wheat,  or  other  grains,  after  sprouting, 
may  be  supported  so  that  their  roots  are  in  water,  and  so  long  as  the 
decaying  seed  or  the  water  culture  furnishes  food,  the  plant  grows. 
Water  enters  into  combination  with  other  compounds  in  the  plant 
tissues,  but  pure  water  alone  will  not  produce  growth  in  plants. 

Water  as  a  Temperature  Regulator.  —  Moisture  and  Soil  Tempera- 
ture. —  The  water  from  spring  and  summer  rains  is  usually  warmer 
than  the  soil  and  tends  to  raise  the  temperature,  while  that  from 
-inter  rains  is  cooler  than  the  soil  and  tends  to  lower  the  tempera- 
iure.  A  dry  soil  is  always  warmer  than  a  wet  one.  Many  of  the 
heat  waves  which  fall  on  wet  land  are  used  up  in  evaporating  its 
surplus  water,  while  the  heat  waves  on  a  dry  soil  are  used  to  raise 
its  temperature.  The  question  of  soil  temperature  is  an  important 
one  to  the  farmer  and  should  be  studied  closely.  The  lowest  tem- 
peratures at  which  growth  may  be  started,  according  to  Ebermayer, 
is  from  45°  to  48°,  but  the  best  results  are  obtained  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  68°  to  70°.  The  germination  of  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  flax 
proceeds  most  rapidly  at  77°  to  87°  F.  and  corn  and  pumpkins 
germinate  best  at  92°  to  101°  F.  Corn  that  will  germinate  in 
three  days  at  a  temperature  of  65.3°  F.  requires  eleven  days  when 


46  SOIL  MOISTURE 

the  soil  temperature  is  as  low  as  51°.  Oats  that  will  germinate 
in  two  days  at  a  temperature  of  65.3°  require  seven  days  to  make 
the  same  growth  when  the  temperature  is  as  low  as  41°  F. 

We  have  already  learned  that  the  texture,  slope  of  the  land,  and 
the  color  of  the  soil  all  have  a  marked  influence  on  the  temperature 
of  the  soil. 

Depletion  of  Soil  Moisture.  — The  store  of  soil  moisture  is  de- 
pleted in  three  principal  ways:  (1)  percolation,  (2)  evaporation, 
(3)  transpiration. 

Percolation.  —  The  force  of  gravity  tends  to  force  the  rain  water 
downward  when  it  reaches  the  earth.  When  the  soil  is  coarse 
and  full  of  gravel,  this  loss  is  considerable.  Coarse  soils  should  be 
rolled  and  made  compact  in  order  to  hold  the  water  near  the  surface. 

Evaporation.  —  If  we  spill  water  on  the  floor  of  a  room  in  summer 
time,  it  soon  disappears.  The  same  thing  happens  when  we  hang 
wet  clothes  on  the  clothes  line.  The  water  that  disappears  goes 
off  in  the  form  of  vapor,  and  the  process  we  call  evaporation. 
Much  of  the  moisture  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  by  capil- 
larity is  removed  by  evaporation.  Sunshine,  warmth,  and  wind 
all  facilitate  evaporation.  Evaporation  will  also  take  place  at 
freezing  temperatures,  but  less  rapidlv.  A  dry,  hot  day  soon 
removes  the  surface  moisture  of  the  soil  and  parches  vegetation. 
In  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Texas  hot  winds  have  been  known  at 
times  to  dry  up  and  kill  all  growing  crops  in  two  days'  time. 
Fortunately  such  instances  are  rare. 

Transpiration.  —  A  great  deal  of  water  is  removed  from  the  soil 
and  given  off  to  the  air  through  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  The  leaves 
correspond  to  the  lungs  of  animals.  This  process  of  removing  the 
water  is  called  transpiration,  and  it  varies  greatly  in  different  plants. 
Willows,  poplars,  cypress,  and  many  other  trees  use  up  large  quan- 
tities of  water  and  are  often  used  for  drying  out  wet  pastures. 
Transpiration  is  very  rapid  in  warm,  dry  air  and  relatively  slow  in 
cool,  moist  air.  It  is  more  active  in  sunlight  than  in  the  shade, 
but  it  does  not  cease  even  at  night.  Evergreen  plants  transpire 
less  than  other  kinds  of  trees.  An  oak  tree  seventy  feet  high  and 
over  eight  feet  in  circumference  has  been  found  to  transpire  forty- 
four  hundred  pounds  of  water  on  a  single  summer's  day.  Such  a 
tree,  it  is  estimated,  will  transpire  in  the  course  of  a  single  season 


SOIL  MOISTURE  47 

more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  pounds  of  water.  The 
enormous  amount  of  moisture  transpired  by  trees  has  a  very  con- 
siderable influence  in  cooling  the  air  in  the  vicinity  of  the  leaves, 
for  a  great  amount  of  heat  must  of  course  be  used  up  wherever 
water  or  moisture  is  changed  to  the  gaseous  form.  The  tempera- 
ture of  a  place  may  be  perceptibly  lowered  by  the  evaporation  of 
water  from  vegetation.  This  cooling  influence  is  noticeable  when 
one  is  passing  a  field  of  heavy  green  alfalfa. 

Conservation  of  Soil  Moisture.  —  When  we  consider  the  vast 
amount  of  water  needed  by  plants,  it  is  evident  that  every  means 
possible  must  be  practiced  to  conserve  the  moisture  of  the  soil 
in  hot,  dry  weather.  The  shallow  surface  of  the  soil  should  be 
stirred  frequently.  Widening  the  spaces  between  soil  particles  in 
plowed  ground,  checks  the  capillary  action,  so  that  less  water 
reaches  the  top  of  the  ground  to  be  wasted  by  excessive  evapora- 
tion. A  mulch  of  humus  or  of  manure  will  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose. The  water-holding  power  of  different  soils  varies  greatly. 
According  to  Johnson's  investigations  an  acre  of  surface  soil  one 
foot  deep  may  hold  the  following  quantities  of  water: 

Sand 1,197,900  Ib. 

Prairie  Soil    ....     1,524,600  Ib. 
Peat 2,047,300  Ib. 

Deep  plowing  at  the  proper  time  enables  rain  water  to  sink  readily 
into  the  earth  instead  of  running  off  to  be  wasted. 

Irrigation.  —  In  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  the  rain- 
fall is  so  uncertain  and  scanty  and  the  ground  water  is  so  far  from 
the  surface  that  there  is  rarely  enough  to  supply  crop  needs. 
Fortunately  many  of  these  regions  are  traversed  by  river  courses, 
and  water  is  drawn  off  from  these  by  means  of  numerous  canals 
or  ditches  to  the  fields  in  cultivation.  This  process  is  called 
irrigation.  Sometimes  the  supply  of  water  is  drawn  from  reser- 
voirs fed  by  springs  or  artesian  wells.  The  Salt  River  Valley  and 
the  Gila  Valley  of  Arizona  are  rich  farming  districts  made  produc- 
tive by  means  of  irrigation.  In  Meade  County,  Kansas,  the  Pecos 
Valley  in  New  Mexico,  and  in  Redlands  and  other  portions  of 
California  irrigation  is  often  carried  on  from  reservoirs  fed  by 
strong  artesian  wells. 


48  SOIL  MOISTURE 

Colorado,  Idaho,  Washington,  and  Nevada  also  have  large 
irrigated  sections  within  their  borders. 

The  number  of  acres  of  irrigated  lands  in  various  countries  is 
estimated  as  follows:  India,  25,000,000;  Egypt,  6,000,000;  Italy, 


An  irrigation  canal,  California. 

nearly  4,000,000;  Spain,  500,000;  France,  400,000.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  over  10,000,000  acres  of  irrigated  lands,  and  there 
are  many  millions  more  that  ought  to  be  under  irrigation.  It  is 
only  a  question  of  time  when  a  large  part  of  our  so-called  arid 
land  will  be  irrigated,  and  these  deserts  will  become  the  garden 
spots  of  the  world. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Place  a  drinking  glass  or  tumbler  over  a  small  plant  or  flower  and  note 
results  after  a  few  hours.     Explain. 

2.  Calculate  the  amount  of  water  transpired  or  given  off  by  thirty  acres 
of  grass  land  in  a  day's  time. 

3.  Place  a  lamp  wick  or  a  piece  of  toweling  so  that  one  end  rests  in  a 
bottle  of  water.     Note  results  and  explain. 

4.  Place  some  grains  of  corn  in  a  bottle  of  lukewarm  water  and    note 
results  from  day  to  day.     Explain  how  the  plant  gets  its  nourishment. 


SOIL  MOISTURE  49 

5.  Fill  a  tin  can  with  coarse  sand,  another  with  clay,  and  a  third  with 
ordinary  soil.     Punch  a  number  of  holes  in  each  can  and  pour  water  on  each 
sample  of  material.     Note  the  rate  of  flow  accurately  and  record  results. 
Explain. 

6.  Weigh  a  yard  of  cloth.     Immerse  the  cloth  in  water,  wring  out  the 
excess  of  water,  and  weigh  again.     Hang  the  cloth  in  the  wind  and  weigh 
every  ten  minutes  until  the  cloth  is  dry.     Tabulate  results  and  explain. 

7.  Place  a  weed  or  some  other  plant  in  a  bottle  of  water  having  the  roots 
well  immersed.     Stop  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  with  cotton  and  weigli. 
After  several  hours  weigh  again.     Note  results  and  explain. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  soil  moisture. 

2.  Name  the  kinds  of  soil  moisture. 

3.  Discuss  ground  water. 

4.  Describe  capillary  water. 

5.  Discuss  hygroscopic  moisture. 

6.  Mention  four  important  purposes  that  moisture  serves. 

7.  Discuss  the  necessity  of  a  plant  food  solvent. 

8.  Discuss  moisture  as  a  vehicle  of  plant  foods. 

9.  In  what  way  is  water  a  source  of  plant  food  ? 

10.  Explain  how  water  is  a  temperature  regulator. 

11.  Name  the  ways  in  which  soil  moisture  may  be  depleted. 

12.  Discuss  percolation. 

13.  Discuss  evaporation. 

14.  Describe  transpiration  and  its  effects. 

15.  Discuss  the  necessity  of  the  preservation  of  soil  moisture. 

16.  What  is  irrigation  ? 

17.  What  can  you  say  of  the  amount  of  irrigated  lands  in  the  world  ? 

REFERENCES 

Irrigation  Farming,  Lucius  M.  Wilcox. 

Irrigation  for  the  Farm,  Henry  Stewart. 

Irrigation  in  Fruit  Growing,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  116;  Irrigation  in  Field 
and  Garden,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  138;  How  to  Build  Small  Irrigation  Ditches, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  158. 


— 4 


X.     DRAINAGE   AND   VENTILATION 

Drainage.  — Professor  Shaler  estimated  that  there  are  more 
than  one  hundred  thousand  square  miles  of  swamp  lands  lying  east 
of  the  100th  meridian  which  are  the  richest  and  most  produc- 
tive lands  in  the  United  States. 

In  this  list  might  be  mentioned  the  Great  Dismal  Swamp  and 
the  Florida  Everglades.  In  these  regions  nothing  but  swamp 
vegetation  will  grow  unless  the  lands  have  been  drained  to  some 
extent.  Farm  crops  will  not  grow  on  them  for  the  following 
reasons:  (1)  the  temperature  is  too  low;  (2)  the  soil  ventilation 
is  inadequate. 

The  advantages  of  good  drainage  cannot  be  overestimated.  Some 
of  its  benefits  are  as  follows: 

1.  It  gives  greater  depth  to  the  subsoil  and  hence  gives  the  plant 
more  room.     But  few  plants  raised  by  the  farmer  are  hardy  enough 
to  force  their  roots  into  water-filled  soils  deprived  of  nearly  every 
vestige  of  air. 

2.  Drainage  warms  the  soil  by  admitting  air  to  the  soil  and  by 
lessening  the  amount  of  evaporation. 

3.  It  increases  the  amount  of  plant  food  by  favoring  the  growth 
of  germs  which  prepare  nitrates  for  the  use  of  plants  from  the  un- 
available nitrogen  of  the  soil. 

4.  It  makes  plowing  possible  earlier  after  rains  and  enables  the 
farmer  to  begin  his  work  earlier  in  the  spring.     This  lengthens  the 
growing  season  and  produces  more  mature  crops. 

5.  It  improves  the  texture  of  the  soil  by  making  it  loose  and 
mellow. 

6.  It  increases  the  porosity  of  the  soil  and  enables  the  plant's 
roots  to  sink  deeper  into  the  rich  and  comparatively  unleached 
soil. 

7.  It  prevents  the  soil  from  being  wasted  by  heavy  washing 
after  rains. 

8.  It  fortifies  plants  against  dry  weather  by  enabling  the  roots 
of  plants  to  go  deeply  into  the  soil  where  moisture  can  be  found. 

50 


DRAINAGE  AND   VENTILATION 


51 


Windmills.  Holland. 


From  our  study  of  geography  we  have  already  learned  that 
Holland  owes  its  wealth  and  importance  to  its  progressive  engineers, 
who  have  success- 
fully grappled  with 
its  drainage  prob- 
lems. The  land 
is  lower  than  the 
sea  and  ordinarily 
would  be  deluged 
with  water,  but 
thanks  to  the  skill 
of  its  practical  en- 
gineers, Holland  is 
a  country  where,  by 
dykes  and  ditches, 
thousands  of  acres  have  been  reclaimed,  from  the  sea,  and  made  to 
yield  rich  harvests.  The  Dutch  first  built  walls  or  dykes  around 
the  low,  swampy  land  and  then  pumped  out  the  water  by  wind- 
mills into  canals  which  carry  the  water  away  to  the  sea.  Thou- 
sands of  windmills  as  well  as  steam  pumps  are  required  to  keep 
Holland  dry. 

Methods  of  Drainage.  — The  efficiency  of  various  systems  and 
kinds  of  drains  is  the  first  thing  to  be  considered  in  the  question 
of  drainage.  This  will  be  determined  largely  by  the  free  passage 
of  water  through  them.  Measured  by  this  standard,  tile  drains 
seem  to  be  the  best  and  cheapest.  Some  of  the  reasons  advanced 
for  their  use  are  as  follows: 

1.  Durability.     Good  drains  last  for  years  and  are  always  clear. 

2.  When  properly  laid,  they  are  out  of  the  reach  of  the  cultivat- 
ing tools  of  the  farmer. 

3.  Cheapness.     No  other  material  suitable  for  this  purpose  can 
be  found  which  is  so  cheap. 

Where  the  land  is  level  the  drains  should  be  gradually  sloped 
towards  the  lowest  portion  of  the  land.  The  grade  should  be  at 
least  one  foot  in  five  hundred.  The  depth  to  which  the  water  should 
be  lowered  by  drainage  need  seldom  exceed  four  feet,  but  it  is  gov- 
erned by  the  character  of  the  land.  On  light,  open  soils  they  should 
be  deep,  and  on  heavy  land  they  should  be  near  the  surface.  The 


52  DRAINAGE  AND  VENTILATION 

distance  between  the  drains  will  vary  with  the  closeness  of  the  soil 
texture  and  the  depth  at  which  they  are  laid.  Their  distance  apart 
varies  from  fifteen  to  one  hundred  feet.  In  Illinois,  in  rich  black 
loam  lands,  the  drains  are  usually  from  one  hundred  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  apart.  The  size  of  the  tile  should  not  be  smaller 
than  three  inches.  Every  drain  should  be  placed  on  a  true  grade, 
and  its  outlet  should  end  above  the  water  line  in  order  to  prevent 
clogging  by  silt.  The  average  cost  of  tiling  in  many  places  does 
not  exceed  $11.50  per  acre,  while  the  productive  value  of  the 
land  will  be  nearly  doubled. 

Soil  Ventilation.  —  The  presence  of  air  in  the  soil  is  just  as  neces- 
sary to  the  life  of  ordinary  plants  as  water.  In  fact  but  few  plants 
can  flourish  whenever  the  free  oxygen  of  the  air  is  excluded  from 
them.  It  has  been  proved  by  experiments  that  seed  will  not  ger- 
minate when  oxygen  is  absent.  If  the  soil  is  flooded,  root  breath- 
ing is  checked  and  the  plants  are  drowned  just  as  effectively  as  an 
animal  would  be  under  water,  because  not  enough  free  oxygen  can 
reach  them.  Oxygen  is  needed  in  the  soil  by  the  germs  which  form 
the  nitrates  so  essential  to  the  plant.  Likewise  it  is  needed  to 
prevent  the  destruction  of  the  nitrates  after  they  have  once  been 
formed. 

Underventilated  Soils.  —  When  we  examine  soils  of  different 
kinds,  we  find  that  they  vary  greatly  in  their  natural  ventilation. 
Compact  soils  like  clay  are  poorly  ventilated,  and  in  wet  seasons 
water  fills  and  chokes  all  their  air  spaces.  Good  drainage  and 
proper  tillage  are  the  only  available  remedies  suggested.  We  can 
easily  prove  the  value  of  ventilation  by  planting  a  few  garden  seed 
in  two  samples  of  the  same  soil  arranged  as  follows:  In  a  tomato 
can  of  common  soil  place  a  few  tomato  or  cabbage  seed.  Make  a 
number  of  holes  in  the  bottom  of  a  second  can,  fill  the  can  with  soil, 
and  plant  seed  as  before.  Keep  the  top  soil  loose  in  this  can,  but 
do  not  disturb  the  soil  in  the  other  can.  Watch  for  several  days 
and  note  developments.  In  a  little  while  you  will  find  that  the 
plants  in  the  first  can  have  stopped  growing.  This  is  because 
the  plant  does  not  receive  proper  ventilation.  Cultivation  pre- 
vents the  soil  from  baking  and  hardening  and  also  helps  to  give  it 
better  ventilation. 

Another  thing  which  contributes  towards  soil  ventilation  is  the 


DRAINAGE  AND  VENTILATION  53 

constant  interchange  of  gases  in  the  soil  and  the  air  above  by  the 
principle  known  as  diffusion.  The  difference  in  temperature  de- 
veloped between  the  top  soil  and  subsoils  also  assists  in  this  process. 
Every  change  which  takes  place  in  the  atmospheric  pressure  above 
a  field  has  a  tendency  to  cause  some  air  to  pass  either  into  or  out 
from  the  soil. 

Under  the  influence  of  a  heavy  wind  which  comes  in  puffs, 
there  is  a  tendency  to  alternately  force  such  air  out  from  the  soil 
pores  and  again  to  allow  it  to  return,  thus  producing  an  irregular 
but  strong  soil  respiration.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  Okla- 
homa, Texas,  and  some  of  the  western  States  where  there  are  high 
winds.  As  proof  of  this  movement  of  the  air  we  might  call  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  in  certain  sections  of  the  country  which  are 
underlaid  by  extensive  beds  of  coarse  gravel  the  wells  sunk  into 
these  beds  are  often  subject  to  strong  draughts  which  alternately 
pass  into  and  out  of  them.  Prairies  that  are  underlaid  with  layers 
of  coarse  gravel  are  usually  very  productive  on  account  of  the  strong 
soil  ventilation.  It  is  claimed  that  in  underdrained  fields  where 
lines  of  tile  are  placed  three  to  four  feet  deep  and  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  feet  apart,  there  is  provided  a  ventilation  system 
which  greatly  facilitates  the  exchange  of  soil  air. 

Overventilation.  —  While  some  soils  are  underventilated,  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  other  soils  are  so  open  that  they  are  over- 
ventilated  and  the  soil  moisture  is  rapidly  exhausted.  Air  and 
water  both  pass  freely  through  this  kind  of  soil  and  bear  away  nearly 
all  the  plant  food.  Such  soils  should  receive  shallow  tillage  and 
the  undersoil  should  be  kept  firm.  Applications  of  farmyard 
manure  which  tends  to  clog  the  pores  of  the  soil  will  be  found 
beneficial.  Again,  when  the  winds  are  unusually  high,  there  is  a 
heavy  loss  of  the  fine  dust  particles  from  light  soils.  This  waste 
accumulates  from  day  to  day  and  soon  impoverishes  the  soil,  be- 
sides decreasing  its  water-holding  power. 

This  destructive  action  of  the  wind  is  especially  noticeable  in 
arid  and  semiarid  regions.  In  Wisconsin  there  are  extensive  areas 
of  light  lands  where  west  or  northwest  winds  after  storms  often 
sweep  entirely  away  crops  of  grain,  even  after  they  are  four  or 
five  inches  high.  In  western  Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  Kansas  simi- 
lar conditions  often  exist. 


DRAINAGE  AND   VENTILATION 


Great  injury  is  often  done  to  the  wheat  crop  by  uncovering 
the  roots  and  leaving  them  exposed.  The  only  method  of  pro- 
tection against  winds  is  to  set  out  groves,  rows  of  hedge,  and  fringes 
of  trees  around  every  farm.  In  the  Columbia  River  Valley  the  ex- 
periments conducted  along  this  line  have  been  very  satisfactory  and 


Dunes. 


successful,  and  demonstrate  beyond  question  the  advisability  of 
providing  suitable  wind-breaks  on  open,  exposed  lands  in  windy 
regions. 

In  California  and  many  other  places  drifting  sands  often  ac- 
cumulate and  cover  good  soil  and  render  it  unfit  for  cultivation. 
The  sand  drifts  like  snow  and  forms  ridges  and  mounds  called 
dunes.  The  government  has  reclaimed  some  of  these  regions 
from  waste  by  setting  out  sedges  and  wind-breaks. 


EXERCISES 

1.  In  the  bottom  of  a  tomato  can  make  twelve  holes,  in  a  second  make 
six  holes,  in  the  third  make  three  holes ;  leave  the  bottom  of  a  fourth  intact. 
Fill  the  cans  with  warm,  moist  soil  and  plant  the  same  kind  of  seed  in  each 
one.     Note  results  from  week  to  week  and  explain. 

2.  Repeat  the  experiment  after  driving  holes  into  the  side  of  each  can. 
Explain  results. 

3.  Repeat  experiment  one  and  place  a  layer  of  gravel  or  coarse  sand  in 
the  bottom  of  each  can.     Note  results. 

4.  Plant  some  seed  in  a  glass  vessel,  an  earthen  jar,  and  a  wooden  box. 
Is  there  any  difference  in  the  growths  ?     Why  ? 


DRAINAGE   AND   VENTILATION  55 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Estimate  the  amount  of  swamp  land  east  of  the  100th  meridian  in  the 
United  States. 

2.  Why  is  it  impossible  to  grow  ordinary  crops  on  wet  swampy  lands? 

3.  How  may  such  lands  be  reclaimed  from  waste  ? 

4.  Discuss  the  advantages  of  drainage. 

5.  Discuss  methods  of  drainage. 

6.  What  is  meant  by  soil  ventilation  ? 

7.  Discuss  underventilated  soils. 

8.  Discuss  overventilation  of  soils. 

9.  What  can  you  say  of  the  damage  done  to  crops  by  high  winds  in 
some  of  the  western  States? 

10.  What  remedy  is  suggested  for  this  danger? 

REFERENCES 

Farm  Drainage,  Judge  French. 

Drainage  for  Profit,  George  E.  Waring. 

Drainage  of  Farm  Lands,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  187, 


XI.     TILLAGE 

TILLAGE  includes  the  usual  farm  operations  of  plowing,  culti- 
vating, harrowing,  rolling,  or  any  other  stirring  of  the  soil  for  the 
purpose  of  facilitating  plant  growth  and  improving  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil. 

Kinds  of  Tillage.  —  Tillage  which  covers  the  entire  ground  we 
call  open  or  general  tillage,  and  when  it  covers  only  that  part  of  the 
ground  which  lies  between  the  plants  we  call  it  close  or  intertillage. 
Open  tillage  is  used  in  preparing  the  ground  for  sowing  seed;  close 
tillage  or  intertillage  is  used  in  fruit  plantations  and  growing  crops. 
When  the  tillage  extends  more  than  six  or  seven  inches  into  the 
ground,  we  speak  of  it  as  deep  tillage.  When  it  extends  only  three 
or  four  inches,  we  have  what  is  known  as  shallow  tillage.  If  the 
depth  of  the  cultivation  is  less  than  three  inches,  we  have  what  is 
called  surface  tillage. 

Benefits  and  Advantages  of  Tillage.  —  1.  It  destroys  weeds. 
These  as  a  rule  are  much  stronger  and  more  vigorous  than  most 
agricultural  plants.  If  weeds  are  not  destroyed  while  young, 
they  deprive  crops  of  food,  water,  and  sunlight. 

2.  Tillage  breaks  and  pulverizes  the  surface  soil  and  makes  it 
more  absorptive  and  porous.     Clods  check  and  impede  the  growth 
of  tender  plants  and  afford  such  a  narrow  area  from  which  to  collect 
food  and  water  that  the  plant  soon  withers  away. 

3.  It  preserves  and  regulates  the  soil  moisture.     Deep  tillage 
provides  a  reservoir  or  storehouse  of  moisture,  while  shallow  tillage 
checks  evaporation  and  thereby  preserves  the  soil  water. 

4.  Tillage  aerates  and  warms  the  soil.     Plants  set  in  ground 
that  is  not  stirred  and  kept  loose  soon  dwarf  and  present  a  sickly 
appearance.     The  ground  bakes,  and  the  soil  moisture  due  to  capil- 
lary action  rapidly  escapes  and  soon  becomes  exhausted.     Tillage 
brings  the  soil  constituents  to  the  surface  and  helps  to  unlock 
unavailable  plant  food. 

56 


TILLAGE 


57 


Methods  of  Tillage.  — The  universal  method  of  tillage  is  with 
the  plow.  This  important  farm  tool  is  found  in  every  form 
and  shape,  from  the  Chinaman's  wooden  stick  with  its  iron  tip 
and  the  rude  implements  used  by  the  uncivilized  nations  to  the 
latest  improved  sulky  cultivator  or  modern  turning  plow.  The 
motive  power  varies  in  different  countries.  Sometimes  the  power 
is  furnished  by  man,  sometimes  by  means  of  horses  and  mules, 
and  sometimes  through  the  agency  of  steam  or  electricity. 

In  early  times  oxen  were  in  general  use,  but  to-day  a  yoke  of 
oxen  is  almost  a  curiosity.  On  level  lands  the  steam  plow  is 


Steam  plow. 

growing  more  and  more  in  favor.  The  greatest  objection  against 
the  use  of  steam  plows  is  the  high  cost  of  installment,  which  pre- 
vents farmers  of  only  moderate  means  from  purchasing  them. 
Many  of  them,  however,  may  be  found  in  California,  Kansas, 
Missouri,  and  some  other  wealthy  farming  States.  The  advan- 
tage claimed  for  the  steam  plow  is  that  it  is  a  great  time  saver 
and  will  do  the  work  of  ten  men  and  thirty  or  forty  horses.  Many 
of  these  plows  turn  from  eight  to  sixteen  furrows  at  a  round.  It 
also  enables  us  to  plow  to  an  increased  depth,  and  in  some  cases 
it  is  possible  to  begin  work  before  the  land  is  dry  enough  to  bear 
the  trampling  of  horses.  Wherever  used  they  have  been  regarded 
as  economical,  effective,  and  expeditious. 


58  TILLAGE 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  five  seed  plats  and  sow  them  in  seed.     After  the  plants  come  up 
cultivate  No.  1  every  day,  No.  2  every  other  day,  No.  3  every  third  day,  and 
No.  4  every  fourth  day,  but  do  not  cultivate  No.  5  at  all.     Note  results  and 
explain. 

2.  Plant  some  seed  in  cloddy  ground,  some  in  well-pulverized  loose  soil, 
and  some  in  closely  compacted  and  well-pulverized  soil.     Note  results  and 
explain. 

3.  How  many  acres  of  ground  can  a  man  plow  with  a  breaking  plow  in 
a  day  ?    How  many  can  he  plow  with  a  cultivator  ? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  fe  tillage? 

2.  Name  the  kinds  of  tillage. 

8.   Enumerate  the  benefits  of  tillage. 

4.  Discuss  methods  of  tillage. 

5.  Compare  the  methods  of  tillage  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 

REFERENCES 

Soil  and  Crops  of  the  Farm,  George  E.  Morrow. 

The  Soil,  King. 

Some  Interesting  Soil  Problems,  Year  Book,  1897. 

Physical  Geography,  Dryer. 

Compend  of  Geology,  Le  Conte. 


XII.  ORDINARY  TOOLS  AND  IMPLEMENTS  FOR  SOIL 
PREPARATION 

The  Plow  and  Its  Parts.  —  The  plow  may  be  best  understood  by 
considering  its  several  parts. 

a.  The  Beam  is  the  horizontal  piece  of  wood  or  steel  by  which  the 
plow  is  drawn. 

b.  The  Standard  or  Stock  is  the  heavy  pie^e  of  metal  attached 
in  a  vertical  position  to  the  beam  and  to  it  many  of  the  other  parts 
of  the  plow  are  attached. 

c.  The  Handles  and  Handle  Bearers.     These  i  nn  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  plow  on  a  gentle  slope  to  such  a  height  that  they  may 
be  easily  held  by  the  plowman.     They  are  used  for  guiding  the 
plow. 

d.  The  Clevis  is  a  piece  of  iron  bent  in  the  shape  of  a  short 
but  wide  U.     The  two  ends  are  perforated  to  receive  a  pin  which 
passes  through  it  and  the  end  of  the  plowbeam  to  which  it  is  at- 
tached.    In  the  front  part  of  the  clevis  are  a  number  of  holes  for 
regulating  the  depth  of  the  furrow.     When  the  singletree  or  the 
doubletree  is  attached  to  the  upper  holes,  the  plow  will  run  deep. 
When  attached  to  the  lower  holes,  it  will  run  shallow.     Sometimes 
there  is  a  horizontal  bar  on  the  clevis  also  containing  perforations. 

e.  The  Plowshare  is  the  V-shaped  piece  of  metal  which  cuts  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  slice. 

/.  The  Plowpoint  is  the  sharp  metal  tip  at  the  end  of  the  plow- 
share which  enters  the  ground  first. 

g.  The  Moldboard  is  the  wide  curved  plate  of  metal  above  the 
plowshare  which  turns  and  throws  the  furrow  slice. 

h.  The  Colter  is  a  revolving  disk  or  a  straight  blade  fastened  to 
the  beam  just  in  front  of  the  moldboard  which  cuts  the  furrow  slice 
from  the  land.  It  is  not  always  used. 

Usually  from  two  to  three  horses  are  hitched  to  heavy  breaking 
plows.  For  light  plowing  after  the  soil  has  already  been  loosened 
a  one-horse  plow  with  small  plowshare  and  narrow,  thin  mold- 

59 


60  IMPLEMENTS  FOR  SOIL  PREPARATION 

board  is  used.  In  cultivating  corn  a  small  plow  with  two  blades  of 
shovel  shape  is  often  used.  Sometimes  these  blades  are  called 
double  shovels.  Out  of  this  has  grown  the  modern  cultivator,  which 
carries  four  blades  or  plows,  two  being  on  each  side  of  the  row  of 
plants  cultivated.  These  blades  are  of  several  shapes  and  kinds, 
according  to  the  cultivation  desired. 

Usually  on  the  first  plowing  a  thin  tonguelike  blade  is  used  on 
each  plow  shaft.  They  are  called  bull  tongues.  In  the  second 
plowing  the  shovels  are  used,  and  on  the  third  the  diamond  blades 
are  used  and  the  furrows  thrown  towards  the  plants.  A  wide 
piece  of  sheet  metal  is  often  attached  to  the  cultivator  in  such  a 
way  that  the  furrow  slice  is  prevented  from  covering  up  the  plant. 
These  are  called  fenders.  These  plowblades  or  shovels  are  attached 
to  the  plow  shaft  by  an  iron  pin  at  the  top  hole  of  the  plowblade 
and  by  a  wooden  pin  at  the  lower  hole  of  the  blade  bearing.  In 
timbered  countries  this  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  shaft  from  being 
broken  when  roots  or  obstructions  are  encountered. 

Surface-working  Tools.  — The  plow  does  not  usually  leave  the 
soil  in  proper  condition  for  planting.  Frequently  the  plowed 
surface  is  full  of  lumps  and  clods  which  must  be  pulverized  before 
planting  can  be  successfully  undertaken.  The  objects  of  tillage 
are  as  follows:  (1)  to  prepare  a  suitable  bed  in  which  sowing  or 
planting  may  be  undertaken;  (2)  to  cover  the  seeds;  (3)  to  reduce 
the  soil  to  a  proper  degree  of  fineness;  (4)  to  form  a  suitable  mulch; 
(5)  to  destroy  weeds. 

Some  of  the  principal  surface- working  tools  are:  the  hoe,  the 
rake,  the  cultivator,  the  rolling  colter  harrow,  the  spring-toothed 
harrow,  and  the  colter-toothed  harrow,  etc. 

Compacting  Tools.  — The  compacting  tools  are  drags,  rollers, 
and  plankers  or  floats.  They  serve  the  following  purposes:  (1)  to 
pulverize  the  clods  and  lumps;  (2)  to  level  the  ground;  (3)  to 
favor  the  germination  of  seed;  (4)  to  rendef  loose  and  open  soils 
more  compact;  (5)  to  prepare  the  ground  for  the  use  of  other  tools. 

Compacting  reestablishes  the  capillary  connection  between 
the  under  soil  and  the  air,  but  sacrifices  the  soil  moisture  at  the 
surface,  as  it  quickly  evaporates.  But  in  its  passage  upwards  the 
soil  moisture  supplies  the  seeds  with  water  and  hastens  germination. 

Time  for  Plowing.  — There  seems  to  be  a  great  difference  of 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  SOIL  PREPARATION  61 

opinion  as  to  the  best  time  for  plowing,  but  in  general  we  may  say 
that  it  depends  on  the  soil,  climate,  and  crops.  In  many  sections 
of  the  South  it  has  been  found  that  land  broken  in  the  spring  is 
fully  as  productive  as  that  broken  during  the  fall.  Clay  soils 
should  be  broken  in  the  fall  or  winter,  especially  in  cold  climates. 
Another  argument  in,  favor  of  it  is  that  fall  plowing  lessens  the 
great  rush  of  spring  work.  In  Texas,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and 
Nebraska  fall  plowing  is  of  inestimable  value,  as  plowed  land  in 
arid  or  semiarid  regions  always  contains  more  moisture.  It  is 
claimed  that  many  insect  pests  are  destroyed  by  fall  plowing. 
January  plowing  is  highly  recommended  in  western  Oklahoma  and 
Texas  as  a  means  of  eradicating  the  cutworms.  Limestone  soils 
and  heavy  grass  sod  demand  fall  or  winter  plowing  to  insure  suc- 
cessful cultivation.  Land  in  which  alfalfa,  rape,  or  turnip  seed  is 
to  be  planted  should  be  broken  in  August  if  not  sooner. 

Depth  for  Plowing.  —  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  proper  depth  for  plowing,  but  it  is  generally  determined  by  the 
character  of  the  soil,  the  season,  the  crop,  and  the  amount  of  rain- 
fall. Formerly  farmers  almost  invariably  advised  deep  plowing. 
Many  still  advise  subsoiling  to  a  depth  of  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches, 
but  recent  experiments  at  the  Experiment  Stations  in  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas  for  different 
crops  at  different  seasons  of  the  year  fail  to  show  any  advantage 
gained  from  it.  In  some  cases  the  yield  was  not  so  great  as  was 
produced  with  ordinary  plowing.  The  average  depth  in  breaking 
for  good  results  is  from  four  to  seven  inches.  In  general,  fall  and 
summer  plowing  should  be  deep  and  spring  plowing  shallow.  Semi- 
arid  and  arid  regions  demand  shallow  plowing.  Thin  soils  also 
should  receive  plowing  at  shallow  depths.  The  depth  of  the  plow- 
ing should  be  changed  from  year  to  year  to  prevent  the  formation 
of  a  hard  pan  layer  which  prevents  the  capillary  movement  of 
moisture  from  the  subsoil.  After  planting,  the  farmer  should  see 
that  the  plowing  is  not  deep  enough  to  interfere  with  the  growth 
of  the  roots  of  the  plant. 

Flat  and  Ridge  Cultivation.  — The  relative  merits  of  flat  and 
ridge  cultivation  depend  on  the  kind  of  crop,  the  nature  of  the 
land,  the  humidity  of  the  soil,  and  the  time  of  the  year.  Ridge 
cultivation  is  undoubtedly  advisable  on  cold,  wet  clay  soils  because 


62  IMPLEMENTS   FOR  SOIL  PREPARATION 

evaporation  goes  on  at  a  more  rapid  rate  when  more  surface  is 
exposed  to  the  action  of  wind  and  sunshine,  and  because  the 
trenches  between  the  ridges  drain  off  the  surplus  water.  In  the 
dry  sandy  regions  of  the  West  it  is  generally  best  to  adopt  flat 
cultivation.  In  many  sections  of  the  eastern  and  southern  States 
ridge  cultivation  seems  to  give  the  best  results. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  beam  of  the  plow. 

2.  What  is  the  standard  ? 

3.  Describe  the  handle  bearers. 

4.  Explain  the  workings  of  the  clevis. 

5.  What  is  the  plowshare  ? 

6.  What  is  the  plowpoint  ? 

7.  Describe  the  moldboard. 

8.  Explain  the  use  of  the  colter. 

9.  Name  all  the  additional  parts  of  a  plow  and  explain  the  use  of  each. 

10.  Describe  the  sulky  plow. 

11.  Discuss  the  parts  of  the  cultivator. 

12.  Name  the  objects  of  tillage. 

13.  Name  the  surface  working  tools. 

14.  Name  the  compacting  tools. 

15.  What  are  the  uses  of  compacting  tools? 

16.  Discuss  the  best  time  for  plowing. 

17.  Discuss  proper  depth  for  plowing. 

18.  Compare  relative  merits  of  flat  and  ridge  cultivation. 


XIII.    THE   PLANT 


THE  plant  is  a  living  being,  usually  with  many  parts,  called 
organs,  which  it  utilizes  for  taking  in  nourishment,  for  breathing, 
for  protection,  and  for  reproduction.  Every  plant  of  the  higher 
orders  has  three  kinds  of  organs;  namely,  the 
root,  the  stem,  and  the  leaf.  The  growth  of  the 
root  is  downward  in  the  soil  towards  darkness 
and  dampness,  while  that  of  the  stem  is  up- 
ward towards  light  and  air.  The  stem  is  the 
axis  of  the  plant,  and  it  is  the  part  which  bears 
all  the  other  organs.  The  stem  is  the  channel 
through  which  food  prepared  in  the  leaves 
passes  to  the  roots. 

The  leaves  in  some  respects  correspond  to 
the  lungs  in  human  beings,  and  through  them 
the  functions  of  respiration  and  transpiration 
are  effected  for  the  plant.  In  the  air  there 
is  always  present  a  certain  amount  of  carbon 

j-       -j  j       T.  •  -^  xu 

dioxide,  and  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the 
plant  a  portion  of  the  carbon  is  taken  up  by  the  leaves,  and  the 
oxygen  is  left  free  in  the  atmosphere  to  be  used  by  animals. 
They  in  turn  contribute  their  share  of  carbon  dioxide  for  the  use 
of  the  plants. 

Besides  this  a  great  deal  of  carbon  is  returned  to  the  air  in  the 
form  of  gas  from  fuels  of  different  kinds  while  in  a  burning  state. 
Millions  upon  millions  of  pounds  of  carbon  are  given  back  to  the 
air  every  day  by  the  numerous  factories  scattered  all  over  the 
world.  All  the  carbon  in  the  plant  comes  from  the  carbon  dioxide 
in  the  air.  None  comes  through  the  roots  from  the  soil.  Carbon 
dioxide  is  taken  up  only  by  green  plants  and  only  in  the  presence  of 
sunshine  or  other  strong  light.  Carbon  dioxide  and  water  after 
coming  in  contact  with  the  chlorophyll,  or  green  substance,  in  the 
leaves  are  transformed  into  starch  and  sugar  and  other  foods 

63 


Seedlings  of 


64 


THE  PLANT 


necessary  for  the  plant.     The  cells  in  all  parts  of  the  plant  are 
nourished  by  this  leaf-formed  food  and  there  are  two  currents  to 

carry  it.  One  goes  up 
from  the  roots  through  the 
soft  sapwood  to  the  leaves, 
and  the  other  passes  down 
through  the  bark  with 
nourishment  to  the  roots. 
In  the  center  of  a  tree 
there  is  little  or  no  sap 
movement,  and  hence  all 
growth  ceases  there.  If 
we  girdle  a  tree,  the  down- 
ward movement  of  the  sap 
is  arrested,  and  no  nourish- 
ment is  carried  to  the 
roots.  In  a  little  while 
they  cease  to  grow  and  fail 

Diagram  of  the  formation  of  starch.  to    take    in    water    in    guffi_ 

cient  amounts  for  the  needs  of  the  plant.  As  a  result,  the  leaves 
wither  and  after  a  short  time  the  plant  dies.  In  transplanting 
trees  we  usually  break  and  injure  many  of 
the  roots  so  that  an  insufficient  amount  of 
water  is  absorbed  and  the  leaves  wilt  and 
wither  away. 

If  we  sprout  some  oats  in  a  germinator 
and  examine  them  closely  a  few  days  later, 
we  find  many  delicate  hairlike  appendages 
studding  the  surface  of  the  larger  roots. 
These  small  growths  are  called  root  hairs, 
and  they  are  of  great  value  to  the  plant. 
In  some  plants  we  often  find  as  many  as 
forty  thousand  of  them  on  a  single  square 
inch.  It  is  through  these  that  the  moisture 
of  the  soil  is  absorbed  for  the  use  of  the 
plant  instead  of  through  the  thick  heavy 
roots.  The  activity  of  these  root  hairs 
or  rootlets  may  be  appreciated  when  we  Roots  of  oat  plant. 


THE  PLANT  65 

consider  the  amount  of  sap  dripping  from  sugar  maples  in  the 
spring.  It  is  also  noticeable  in  the  watery  exudations  of  some 
plants  after  pruning  in  the  spring;  especially  is  this  true  of  the 
grapevine,  where  this  exudation  continues  for  days  and  days 
after  pruning.  This  pressure  which  forces  the  sap  upward  is 
called  root  pressure.  It  is  also  called  osmotic  pressure.  Scien- 
tists have  found  that  it  is  possible  not  only  to  measure  the  amount 
of  water  which  the  roots  will  raise  in  a  given  time,  but  also  to 
measure  the  force  exerted  in  the  process  of  root  pressure.  In 
the  case  of  the  common  nettle  it  is  sufficient  to  support  a  column 
of  water  15  feet  high.  With  a  common  vine  it  will  hold  a 
column  of  water  36.5  feet  high,  and  the  birch  will  hold  a  column 
of  water  84.7  feet  high.  This  varies  for  different  times  of  the  day 
and  for  different  seasons  of  the  year.  The  grapevine  shows  its 
greatest  pressure  in  the  forenoon  and  decreases  after  noon.  The 
sunflower  reaches  its  maximum  by  10  A.M.  and  then  begins  to 
decrease. 

Offices  or  Functions  of  the  Plant.  — From  an  agricultural  stand- 
point the  plant  has  four  principal  uses  or  functions.  1.  It  aids 
in  the  formation  and  improvement  of  soils.  2.  It  modifies  climate 
and  environment.  3.  It  is  the  ultimate  source  of  food  for  farm  ani- 
mals. 4.  Plants  furnish  man  with  food  and  other  useful  materials. 

General  Classification  of  Plants.  —  Plants  according  to  their 
duration  of  life  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  annuals, 
biennials,  and  perennials. 

Annuals  live  and  die  within  the  year. 

Biennials  are  plants  that  live  for  two  years.  They  grow  the 
first  season  without  blossoming  and  lay  up  a  stock  of  nourishment; 
they  blossom  and  seed  the  next  spring  or  summer.  Turnips  and 
beets  are  familiar  examples. 

Perennials  are  plants  that  live  and  blossom  from  year  to  year 
although  some  die  down  to  the  roots.  Our  common  shrubs  and 
trees  may  be  taken  as  examples. 

Classification  of  Crops.  — When  plants  are  grown  in  quantity, 
they  and  their  products  constitute  a  crop.  The  most  important 
crops  may  be  grouped  in  four  or  five  classes: 

1.  Cereal  or  Grain  Crops,  including  corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
barley,  rice,  etc. 

PRAC.  AGRICUL.  —  5 


66 


THE   PLANT 


2.  Forage  Crops,  grown  for  hay,  fodder,  or  pasture,  and  includ- 
ing clovers  and  grasses. 

3.  Root  Crops  and  those  in  which  the  root  of  a  biennial  plant 
becomes  a  storehouse  of  nourishment.     Typical  roots  of  this  kind 
are  turnips,  beets,  carrots,  horseradish,  etc. 

4.  Tuber  Crops,  the  outgrowth  of  creeping  subterranean  stems 
growing  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil  or  partly  covered  by  it. 


Turnip. 


Jerusalem  artichoke. 


The  best  examples  are  seen  in  the  potato,  the  Jerusalem  artichoke, 
and  the  sweet  potato. 

5.  Fiber  Crops,  including  cotton,  hemp,  jute,  ramie,  Manila  fiber, 
sisal,   maguey,   etc.      Wool  and  silk  are  animal  fibers  and   are 
discussed  in  Chapter  XXI. 

6.  Miscellaneous  Crops  include  those  not  described  in  the  other 
classes. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Let  the  students  bring  in  plants  and  point  out  the  vegetative  organs. 

2.  Arrange  to  have  one  plant  left  with  its  roots  exposed  and  note  what 
takes  place. 

3.  Place  one  plant  in  a  glass  or  jar  of  water  so  that  the  roots  will  be 
covered  and  note  how  long  the  plant  will  live. 

4.  Invert   one  plant  and    immerse   its  leaves  in  water,    but  leave  the 
roots  exposed,  and  note  the  results. 

5.  Remove   the    roots  entirely  from  one  plant  and  place  the   stem  in 
water.     Note  how  much  time  elapses  before  the  plant  begins  to  wilt. 

6.  Compare  the  roots  of  the  oat  plant  with  those  of  the  corn  plant  and 
note  the  chief  differences. 

7.  If  possible,  bring  in  examples  of  each  one  of  the  leading  classes  or  kinds 
of  crops. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  crops  grown  in  your  county. 


THE   PLANT  67 


QUESTIONS 


1.  Discuss  the  plant  in  a  general  way. 

2.  Name  the  vegetative  organs. 

3.  Discuss  (a)  the  root,  (6)  the  stem,  (c)  the  leaf. 

4.  Discuss  the  sap  movement. 

5.  Describe  the  root  hairs. 

6.  Discuss  the  osmotic  pressure  of  plants. 

7.  G;ve  the  three  general  classes  of  plants. 

8.  What  are  annuals  ? 

9.  Discuss  biennials. 

10.  What  are  perennials  ? 

11.  Name  the  cereals. 

12.  Enumerate  the  forage  crops. 

13.  Discuss  the  root  crops. 

14.  Name  the  tuber  crops. 

15.  Name  the  plant  fiber  crops. 

16.  Give  two  animal  fiber  crops. 

REFERENCES 

How  Plants  Grow,  Samuel  W.  Johnson. 
How  Crops  Feed,  Samuel  W.  Johnsoiio 
Botany  all  the  Year  Round,  Andrews. 


XIV.    CEREALS   OR  GRAINS 


Cereals.  —  As  a  rule  cereal  crops  are  grown  for  the  grain  or  seed 
that  they  produce,  but  occasionally  some  of  them,  as  corn  and 
oats,  are  grown  also  for  fodder.  All  cereals  are  annuals  and  have 
roots  which  grow  in  a  cluster  or  crown.  These  branch  out  near 
the  surface,  but  some  roots  penetrate  to  depths  of  three  feet  or  more. 
The  cereal  crops  grow  on  nearly  any  kind  of  soil,  but  they  do  best 
in  moist  clay  loams  which  are  well  underdrained.  The  rich  prai- 
ries of  the  United  States  and  Europe  are  ideal  soils  for  cereals. 

Corn.  — The  great  Amer- 
ican cereal  is  maize  or 
Indian  corn.  It  is  thought 
to  be  a  native  of  tropical 
America,  but  the  early  set- 
tlers found  it  cultivated  to 
some  extent  by  various 
Indian  tribes  in  the  United 
States.  Columbus  found 
it  cultivated  on  the  island 
of  Hayti,  where  it  was 
called  mahez,  hence  the 
name  maize.  It  is  now 
grown  in  practically  every  State.  The  leading  maize-producing 
States  are  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Ne- 
braska, Missouri,  and  Kansas.  It  is  estimated  that  the  entire 
production  of  the  United  States  is  nearly  three  billion  bushels 
of  corn,  which  is  three  fourths  of  the  world's  supply.  Corn  is  a 
staple  food  for  man  and  beast  and  furnishes  the  material  for  the 
manufacture  of  starch,  glucose,  and  alcohol.  Nearly  every  part 
of  the  plant  is  of  commercial  value. 

The  cobs  are  used  for  making  corncob  pipes,  and  this  is  an 
important  manufacturing  interest  in  Missouri  and  other  States. 
The  stalks  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  alcohol,  oil,  sirup, 

68 


Corn  field. 


CEREALS  OR  GRAINS 


69 


United  States. 

The  world's  corn  crop 


A 


and  cellulose.     The  latter  is  used  as  an  inside  lining  below  the 

water  line   for   our   modern   battleships  and   some   steamships. 

The  cellulose,,  when  water  strikes  it,  rapidly  fills  out  and  stops 

any  ordinary  opening  made   by  shot 

and  shell  in  the  armor  plate  of  the 

vessel.     The  blades  and  shucks  afford 

valuable  forage  for  stock  if  cut  while 

green.      A  very  good  grade  of  paper 

and  pasteboard  can  be  made  from  the 

stalks. 

Kinds  of  Corn.  —  There  are  many 
varieties  of  corn,  but  the  principal  ones 
are  known  as  pod  corn,  pop  corn, 
soft  corn,  dent  corn,  sweet  corn,  and  flint  corn.  The  dent 
variety  is  very  widely  grown,  and  the  yellow  and  white  varieties 
are  familiar  to  all.  The  pod  corn  is  a  peculiar  type  in  which 
each  grain  is  covered  with  a  husk  in  addition  to  the  outside  cover- 


Rest  of 
world. 


ing  of  the  ear  itself.     It  is  .thought  to  be  the  primitive  type  of 
all  the  other  varieties. 

Cultivation.  —  The  ground  should  be  broken  as  early  in  the  sea- 
son as  the  weather  and  soil  will  permit.  In  the  West  and  South 
growing  conditions  are  usually  more  favorable  in  the  spring,  as  this 


70 


CEREALS   OR   GRAINS 


affords  the  young  crop  a  chance  to  get  its  growth  before  the  ad- 
vent of  the  dry  hot  weather  in  the  summer.  The  tillage  should 
be  as  a  rule  moderately  deep,  but  there  is  a  great  diversity  of  opin- 
ion on  this  point.  The  Southern  Experiment  Stations  generally 
recommend  that  the  plowing  have  a  depth  of  five  or  six  inches, 
while  many  of  the  Western  and  Northwestern  Stations  recommend 
a  breaking  depth  from  six  to  nine  inches.  After  the  plant  begins 
to  grow,  shallow  cultivation  is  always  the  rule  everywhere,  as  deep 
plowing  would  injure  the  roots  of  the  plant. 

Selecting  Seed.  — To  secure  the  best  seed  we  must  not  wait 
until  the  corn  is  gathered,  but  we  should  go  out  into  the  field 

before  the  crop  is  gath- 
ered and  select  the  most 
productive  plants  and 
take  only  the  largest  and 
most  perfect  ears.  The 
stalk  should  be  provided 
with  plenty  of  leaves  and 
should  bear  two  or  more 
good  ears  which  point 
downward  when  ripe. 
The  rows  of  grain  should 

Improvement  of  corn  by  selection.  .  .    .  1,1 

be  straight  and  the  ear 

should  be  well  filled  out  at  both  ends.  Such  a  selection  as  this 
means  considerable  trouble,  but  it  will  pay  for  the  time  in  the 
end.  Do  not  overlook  the  time  required  for  maturity  in  making 
your  selections.  It  is  also  best  to  reject  the  grains  at  either  end 
of  the  cob,  since  they  are  generally  imperfect.  See  that  all  grains 
have  clean,  healthy  looking  kernels.  Do  not  plant  two  varieties 
side  by  side,  as  they  will  mix  and  taint  the  purity  of  your  crop, 
Pop  corn  and  common  yellow  corn  often  mix  when  planted  in 
adjoining  fields.  Plants  soon  become  adapted  to  the  climate,  and 
locally  grown  seed  carefully  selected  will  in  the  end  frequently 
give  better  results  than  any  imported  seed. 

Method  of  Planting.  —  In  pioneer  days  the  field  was  laid  off  in 
furrows  and  cross  furrows  from  2|  to  3  feet  apart  each  way,  and  the 
corn  was  dropped  by  hand,  three  or  four  grains  to  the  hill,  accord- 
ing to  the  judgment  of  the  farmer.  A  little  later  the  hand  planter 


CEREALS   OR   GRAINS 


71 


Corn  planter. 


superseded  this.  Still  later  came  the  corn  planter  with  hand  lever 
for  dropping  the  corn,  and  finally  this  was  followed  by  the  modern 
check  rower,  in  which 
the  dropping  or  plant- 
ing is  accomplished  by 
a  check  wire  and  check 
buttons  which,  by 
throwing  levers  alter- 
nately right  and  left, 
plant  the  corn  at  regu- 
lar intervals.  If  the 
check  wire  is  kept  at 
the  same  tension,  the 
rows  will  be  perfectly 
straight  and  even. 

Sometimes  corn  is  drilled  to  good  advantage,  but  this  method  pre- 
cludes cross  cultivation  and  admits  of  plowing  in  only  one  direc- 
tion. In  many  cases,  however,  this  seems  to  give  a  larger  yield. 

Yields  and  Profit.  —  The  yield  varies  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  and  the  profits  correspondingly.  In  the  South  the 
yield  ranges  from  twelve  to  thirty  bushels.  In  the  river  bottom 
districts  of  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi  rivers  the  yield  often  runs 
from  fifty  to  ninety  bushels  to  the  acre.  In  other  districts  it  runs 
from  twenty  to  forty  bushels.  The  average  price  is  usually  from 
40  to  50  or  60  cents  per  bushel  in  good  seasons.  Good  corn  land 
rents  at  from  $3  to  $4  per  acre.  On  this  basis  calculate  the  cost 
of  raising  an  acre  of  corn,  making  due  allowance  for  labor,  time, 
seed,  wear  and  tear  on  tools,  etc.,  and  estimate  the  profit.  In  some 
parts  of  the  country  corn  is  sold  by  the  barrel,  and  in  such  cases  we 
have  only  to  bear  in  mind  that  five  bushels  of  corn  are  required 
to  make  a  barrel.  It  will  be  an  excellent  plan  at  this  point  of  our 
work  if  the  pupil  will  ascertain  the  different  rules  farmers  have  for 
measuring  corn  in  bulk,  whether  in  ricks  or  in  pens. 

Farmers  usually  in  measuring  corn  take  all  the  dimensions  in 
feet  and  divide  the  product  by  12  to  ascertain  the  number  of 
barrels,  or  by  2.4  to  obtain  the  number  of  bushels.  If  all  the 
dimensions  are  taken  in  inches,  and  the  product  divided  by  2150.4 
(cubic  inches),  the  result  will  be  in  bushels, 


72  CEREALS   OR  GRAINS 

The  legal  weight  per  bushel  in  many  States  is  fifty-six  pounds 
per  bushel,  but  in  some  localities  sixty  pounds  is  the  amount 
for  shelled  corn.  For  unshelled  corn  the  legal  weight  varies  from 
seventy  to  eighty  pounds  in  different  States  according  to  the  dry- 
ness  of  the  corn. 

Grading  Corn.  —  According  to  Scofield  the  essential  elements 
in  grading  maize  are  as  follows:  (1)  the  moisture;  (2)  the  percent- 
age of  colors  in  mixtures;  (3)  the  percentage  of  damaged  grains; 
(4)  the  percentage  of  broken  grains  and  dirt.  The  ordinary 
system  of  inspection  for  corn  depends  on  soundness,  plumpness, 
and  mixture  of  foreign  substances  or  of  corn  of  different  colors.  In 
this  case  weight  is  not  considered  in  determining  the  grade.  The 
classes  and  grades  as  recognized  by  the  Illinois  Board  of  Railroad 
and  Warehouse  Commissioners  are : 

Yellow  Maize,  Numbers,  1,  2,  3. 
White  Maize,  Numbers,  1,  2,  3. 
Maize,  Numbers,  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

The  rules  for  grading  yellow  maize  are  as  follows: 

No.  1.  — Yellow  maize  shall  be  sound,  dry,  plump,  and  well 
cleaned. 

No.  2.  — Yellow  maize  shall  be  three  fourths  yellow,  dry, 
reasonably  clean,  but  not  plump  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  3.  —  Yellow  maize  shall  be  three  fourths  yellow,  reason- 
ably dry  and  reasonably  clean,  but  not  sufficiently  sound  for  No.  2. 
The  rules  for  white  maize  are  the  same  as  for  yellow,  except 
wherever  we  have  the  word  three  fourths  in  the  above  we  read 
seven  eighths. 

Mixed  maize  or  maize  includes  all  maize  that  is  less  than  three 
fourths  yellow  and  less  than  seven  eighths  white.  Yellow  maize 
on  the  large  markets  is  more  abundant  than  white  maize;  and 
as  might  be  expected,  more  mixed  maize  is  dealt  in  than  in  both 
yellow  and  white  combined. 

Corn  Judging.  —  This  is  a  question  that  may  frequently  come 
up  for  discussion  at  Farmers'  Institutes.  There  are  a  number  of 
points  to  be  considered  in  our  tests  on  corn  judging.  The  following 
are  the  points  usually  given  in  the  ordinary  score  cartU 


CEREALS   OR  GRAINS  73 

1.  Trueness  to  Type  or  Breed,  10  points, 

2.  Shape  of  Ear,  10  points. 

(A,   In  Grain,  5  points. 

3.  Purity     jn,     ^  ,     '        .   . 

I  B.    In  Cob,  5  points. 

4.  Vitality  or  Seed  Condition,  10  points. 

5.  Tips,  5  points. 

6.  Butts,  5  points. 

„     .        (A.    Uniformity,  10  points. 

7.  Grains    \  n    0,  _,    J '.   , 

|  B.    Shape,  5  points. 

8.  Length  of  Ear,  10  points. 

9.  Circumference  of  Ear,  5  points. 

(A.    Furrows  between  Rows,  5  points. 
'    1  B.    Space  between  Tips  of  Grain  at  Cob,  5  points. 
11.    Proportion  of  Grain  to  Cob,  10  points. 

Harvesting  Corn.  —  The  time  and  the  manner  of  harvesting  corn 
will  depend  on  whether  it  is  grown  for  the  ears  alone,  for  fodder, 
for  both  ears  and  stover,  or  for  silage  only.  When  grown  for  the 
grain  the  ears  are  left  on  the  stalks  until  the  corn  is  dry  enough  to 
be  gathered  and  placed  in  the  crib.  This  is  generally  about  a 
month  after  the  first  severe  frost  or  a  few  weeks  after  the  corn  has 
matured.  Sometimes  the  corn  is  shucked  as  it  is  gathered,  and 
sometimes  it  is  left  in  the  shuck,  according  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
farmer.  A  great  deal  of  corn  is  now  shelled  in  order  to  facilitate  its 
shipment  and  its  handling  in  the  grain  elevators.  The  old-time 
method  of  shelling  corn  by  hand  has  now  been  supplanted  by 
the  patented  corn  shellers  run  by  hand  and  by  steam. 

In  the  North  Atlantic  States  and  in  some  of  the  Central  and 
Southern  States  a  great  deal  of  the  growing  corn  is  cut  and  put  into 
shocks  or  into  silos.  A  great  deal  of  the  cutting  is  done  by  hand 
with  the  old  time  corn  knife,  but  in  many  places  the  patented 
corn  cutter  and  corn  harvester  are  coming  into  use.  The  com- 
bined corn  binder  and  corn  shocker  is  a  new  machine  which  is 
becoming  very  popular  in  some  localities  on  account  of  the  labor 
it  saves.  The  corn  picker  and  husker  is  another  valuable  labor- 
saving  device  which  eliminates  the  disagreeable  features  of  husking 
by  hand. 

The  Corn  Picker  and  Husker.  —  This  machine  picks  and  husks 


74 


CEREALS   OR  GRAINS 


the  corn  without  cutting  the  stalks,  which  are  left  standing  in  the 
field.  The  ears  are  delivered  into  a  wagon  driven  along  the  side  of 
the  machine  so  that  the  box  is  kept  under  the  elevator.  In  either 


Corn  picker  and  busker. 

light  or  heavy  corn  this  machine  will  work  successfully,  and  is 
designed  for  those  who  do  not  wish  to  cut  or  shred  their  corn  crop. 

Another  valuable  labor-saving  device  in  preparing  the  corn- 
field for  subsequent  cultivation  after  the  corn  has  been  gathered  is 
the  stalk  cutter,  which  by  a  system  of  horizontal  revolving  blades 
cuts  all  the  stalks  into  small  pieces  in  each  row  over  which  the 
machine  passes. 

Corn  as  a  Food.  —  According  to  some  authorities  when  stover 
is  to  be  harvested  it  is  best  to  have  the  plant  as  mature  as  possible 
without  having  the  corn  blades  fall  off  while  the  corn  is  being 
shocked. 

When  the  corn  is  desired  for  silage  the  unripened  plant  is  cut 
into  small  pieces  and  placed  in  a  silo,  which  is  a  receptacle  with 
air-tight  sides  and  bottom.  The  silo  should  be  built  of  durable 
materials  and  should  be  from  twenty-five  to  forty  feet  in  depth, 
and  the  surface  area  should  be  such  that  the  silage  will  be  fed 
rapidly  enough  to  prevent  decay  at  the  top.  Generally  a  cubic 
foot  of  compact  silage  is  a  standard  daily  ration  for  a  milch  cow. 


CEREALS  OR  GRAINS 


75 


Corn,  whether  green  or  dry,  is  a  palatable  food  for  horses,  cattle, 
and  farm  stock  of  all  kinds. 

Corn  is  also  a  valuable  food  for  man  and  is  prepared  for  his 

use  in  a   number  

of  ways.  In  the 
form  of  meal  it  is 
found  in  practi- 
cally every  farm- 
house in  the  United 
States. 

While  the  grain 
is  in  the  milk,  corn 
forms  a  palatable 
dish,  especially 
when  roasted  or 
made  into  corn 
pudding.  A  great 
deal  of  this  kind  of  corn  is  canned  and  put  up  for  winter  use, 
and  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  canning  corn  is  an  im- 
portant industry.  Other  important  food  products  derived  from 
corn  are  grits,  corn  flakes,  and  hominy. 


Stalk  cutter. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  leading  cereals  of  the  United  States  ? 

2.  Give  a  brief  history  of  maize  or  Indian  corn. 

3.  Mention  some  of  the  uses  to  which  the  various  parts  of  the  corn  plant 
may  be  put. 

4.  Name  and  describe  the  various  kinds  of  corn. 

5.  Describe  briefly  the  cultivation  of  corn. 

6.  How  should  seed  corn  be  selected  ? 

7.  Describe  the  method  of  planting. 

8.  Discuss  the  yields  and  profits  of  corn  growing. 

9.  Discuss  corn  grading. 

10.  Discuss  corn  judging. 

11.  Discuss  corn  harvesting. 

12.  Mention  some  of  the  improved  harvesting  machines. 

13.  Describe  the  stalk  cutter. 

14.  Discuss  the  value  of  corn  as  a  food. 

15.  If  corn  is  planted  in  rowrs  four  feet  apart  each  way,  calculate  the 
number  of  hills  in  40  acres. 


76  CEREALS   OR  GRAINS 

16.  Calculate  the  number  of  bushels  of  corn  in  a  pen  6X6  feet  and  10 
feet  high. 

17.  Take  the  dimensions  of  a  wagon  bed  and  calculate  how  much  corn  it 
will  hold. 

REFERENCES 

The  Cereals  in  America,  Thomas  F.  Hunt. 

The  Bcok  of  Corn,  Herbert  Myrick. 

Corn  Growing,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  199. 

Corn  Culture  in  the  South,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  81. 

North  America  (Geographical  Reader)   Carpenter. 

How  the  World  is  Fed  (Industrial  Reader),  Carpenter 

The  Production  of  Good  Seed  Corn,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  229. 


XV.     WHEAT 


History.  —  So  far  as  can  be  learned  wheat  was  not  grown  in 
America  before  its  discovery  and  settlement  by  Europeans. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  grain  crops  and  one  of  the  most  useful. 
Many  of  the  ancient  monuments  show  that  at  the  earliest  time 
known  wheat  was  the  chief  crop  of  Egypt  and  Palestine.  .  (In  the 
Bible  it  is  everywhere  called  corn.)  On  the  continent  of  Europe 


WHEAT 

ESS  160  to  640  bushels  per  square  mile'        \ 
K5253  £.A/\  N 


it  was  cultivated  by  the  lake  dwellers  of  Switzerland  as  early  as  the 
Stone  Age.  The  Chinese  claim  wheat  as  a  native  of  their  country 
and  state  that  their  people  cultivated  it  as-  early  as  2700  B.C. 
The  Euphrates  Valley  in  Asia  is  thought  by  many  to  have  been  the 
habitat  of  this  grain  in  prehistoric  times. 

Production.  —  The  ease  with  which  wheat  can  be  cultivated,  its 
adaptation  to  a  climate  favorable  to  the  beginning  of  civilization, 
and  its  quick  and  abundant  supply  of  nutritious  elements  were 
reasons  which  no  doubt  caused  primitive  man  to  begin  and  continue 
its  cultivation.  It  grows  in  a  variety  of  soils  and  in  both  temperate 

77 


nnn 

I »1 SN 9 


78  WHEAT 

and  warm  climates.  Clay  loams  seem  best  suited  to  wheat,  and 
sandy  soils  seem  to  be  the  poorest,  because  the  subsoil  is  apt  to  be 
too  open.  Wheat  is  raised  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
ranks  third  in  the  value  of  its  crops.  More  wheat  is  raised  in  the 
United  States  than  in  any  other  country.  The  largest  yield  ever 
produced  in  a  single  year  is  about  seven  hundred  and  fifty  million 

bushels,  or  about  one  fifth 
of  the  production  of  the 
entire  world.  The  great 
wheat  belt  extends  through 
the  corn  belt  northward 

United  States.  Rest  of  world  jnto  Minnesota    Nortn  Da_ 

The  world's  wheat  crop. 

kota,  Montana,  and  the 

Great  Northwest  Territory  of  Canada.  The  center  of  wheat  pro- 
duction is  one  hundred  miles  west  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa.  The 
average  yield  of  wheat  in  bushels  per  acre  for  Great  Britain  is 
estimated  at  31.8,  Germany  26,  France  19.4,  and  the  United  States 
13.4.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  where  climatic  con- 
ditions are  favorable  and  proper  care  is  exercised  in  selecting  the 
seed  and  in  preparing  the  ground,  a  yield  of  forty  bushels  is  not 
unusual. 

Cultivation.  —  About  three  fifths  of  the  wheat  of  the  United 
States  is  usually  planted  in  the  fall.  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Idaho,  Washington,  and  Oregon  produce  both  winter 
and  spring  wheat.  Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota, 
Colorado,  Utah,  Montana,  New  Mexico,  Wyoming,  Nevada,  Ari- 
zona, Maine,  and  Vermont  raise  spring  wheat,  while  Oklahoma, 
Texas,  Missouri,  and  the  rest  of  the  States  raise  winter  wheat. 

The  soil  should  be  well  plowed,  harrowed,  rolled,  and  put  in 
thorough  condition  before  planting.  The  rolling  is  necessary 
to  make  the  soil  firm  and  compact  so  as  to  insure  a  moist  under- 
soil. It  also  gives  a  firm  foothold  for  the  roots  of  the  plant  and 
brings  up  food  and  water  for  the  use  of  the  plant  by  capillary 
action.  This  favors  germination  and  insures  an  early  growth. 
Wheat  in  germination  absorbs  from  five  to  six  times  its  own  weight 
of  water,  hence  the  necessity  of  a  moist  undersoil.  The  maximum 
and  minimum  temperatures  at  which  wheat  will  germinate  or 
sprout  are  given  as  41°  and  108°  F.;  and  the  most  favorable 


WHEAT  79 

temperature  as  84°  F.  The  temperature  in  the  spring  is  still 
considered  favorable  when  the  range  extends  from  60  to  80°.  The 
seed  as  a  rule  should  not  be  over  one  or  two  years  old.  Saunders,  in 
his  experiments  extending  over  a  period  of  six  years,  found  these 
results  in  vitality:  Wheat  one  year  old,  82  per  cent;  three  years 
old,  77  per  cent;  four  years  old,  37  per  cent;  five  years  old,  15 
per  cent;  six  years  old,  6  per  cent.  The  depth  of  plowing  in 
breaking  the  ground  for  wheat  is,  generally  speaking,  more  than 
four  inches  and  less  than  eight.  Subsoiling  has  not  been  shown  to 
be  of  any  particular  value. 

As  a  rule  from  one  to  two  inches  is  the  most  satisfactory  depth 
for  planting  wheat,  but 
this  will  vary  with  the 
kind  of  soil,  the  mois- 
ture, and  the  lay  and 
the  conditions  of  the 
seed  bed.  Sandy  soils 
require  deeper  plant- 
ing than  clay  soils. 
It  is  also  advisable  to 
sow  deeper  in  dry  soils 
than  in  wet  soils.  Gen-  A  grain  dmi. 

erally  speaking,  in  sowing  wheat,  drilling  is  more  satisfactory  than 
broadcasting  for  the  following  reasons: 

1.  Drilling  is  more  economical.  2.  The  seed  is  distributed  uni- 
formly. 3.  It  is  sown  at  a  more  even  depth.  4.  The  seed  is  placed 
in  moist  soil  and  rapid  germination  is  insured.  5.  It  is  protected 
against  freezing,  since  the  drill  makes  little  furrows  in  which  the 
snow  collects  and  is  kept  from  blowing  away.  This  layer  of  snow 
prevents  the  wheat  from  freezing  out.  6.  The  wheat  is  less  likely 
to  be  heaved  out  irom  sudden  freezing  and  thawing.  7.  The  seed 
is  protected  from  heavy  winds,  which  would  blow  away  the  soil  and 
leave  the  seed  bare  if  it  were  broadcast.  In  this  case  the  soil  drifts 
into  the  furrows  and  tends  to  deepen  the  covering.  Nearly  all  of 
the  Federal  and  State  Experiment  Stations  report  that  drilling 
increases  the  yield  from  two  to  eight  bushels  per  acre.  South 
Carolina  and  Iowa,  however,  report  in  favor  of  broadcasting. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  per  acre  varies  according  to  the 


80 


WHEAT 


character  of  the  soil,  climate,  time  of  seeding,  and  the  conditions 
of  the  soil.     Where  the  winters  are  severe,  thicker  seeding  is  needed 


Reaper. 

than  where  the  winters  are  mild.     In  the  Middle  Atlantic  States 
and  in  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  valleys  the  amount  needed  is  from 


Binder. 


WHEAT 


81 


seven  to  nine  pecks.     California  reports  in  favor  of  three  pecks 
for  dry  regions  and  five  to  eight  in  the  more  humid  regions. 

Harvesting.  —  When  the  wheat  matures,  it  begins  to  take  on  a 
rich  golden  yellow  hue.     There  is  not  a  month  in  the  year  that 


Header. 


wheat  does  not  mature  in  some  part  of  the  world.  The  wheat 
harvest  of  the  United  States  begins  with  Texas  in  May  and  ends 
with  the  Dakotas  in  August.  In  California,  which  usually  has  a  dry 
summer,  the  harvest  begins  about  June  1  and  lasts  until  the  close 


Harvesting  wheat,  California. 

of  July.  There  are  five  types  of  machinery  for  harvesting  wheat : 
(1)  the  cradle;  (2)  the  self-rake  reaper;  (3)  the  self-binder; 
(4)  the  header;  and  (5)  the  combined  harvester  and  thrasher. 

PRAC.  AQRICUL.  —  6 


82 


WHEAT 


The  header,  instead  of  cutting  the  wheat  near  the  ground, 
merely  heads  it,  leaving  the  straw  standing  in  the  field;  the  header 
carries  the  heads  of  grain  to  the  side  of  the  machine  and  elevates 


Combined  harvester  and  thrasher. 

them  so  that  they  are  deposited  in  a  wagon  driven  by  the  side  of 
the  machine.  The  grain  is  then  hauled  to  the  thrashing  machine 
and  thrashed.  The  header  cuts  a  swath  twelve  to  twenty  feet 

wide  and  averages 
twenty  to  thirty 
acres  per  day. 
The  horses  push 
the  machine,  in- 
stead of  pulling  it. 
The  combined 
harvester  and 
thrasher  is  a  com- 
bination of  a  head- 
er and  a  thrasher. 
This  machine  cuts 
a  swath  from 
eighteen  to  forty 
It  cuts,  thrashes,  and 


Harvesting  wheat  in  France. 

feet  wide,  according  to  the  power  used. 


sacks  the  grain  all  at  one  operation.     Four  men  are  required  to 


WHEAT  83 

operate  such  a  machine;  one  drives  or  guides,  one  tilts  the  cutter 
bar,  and  one  sews  up  the  filled  sacks  and  dumps  them  on  the  ground, 
and  one  has  general  charge  of  the  machine.  It  is  used  a  great  deal 
in  California.  In  the  central  part  of  the  United  States  the  grain 
is  usually  cut  by  a  self  binder,  shocked  by  hand,  and  later,  after 
passing  though  the  sweat,  is  ricked  and  finally  thrashed  by  a 
steam  thrasher. 


Thrashing. 

Varieties  of  Wheat.  — The  leading  types  of  wheat  are: 

1.  Soft  Winter  Wheat,  found  in  eastern  United  States.      Exam- 
ples, Fultz  and  Harvest  King. 

2.  Hard  Winter  Wheat,  south  of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas, 
between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.     Ex- 
amples, Turkey  Red  and  Sibley's  New  Golden. 

3.  Hard  Spring  Wheat,  in  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas,  northern 
Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska.     Examples,  Fife  and  Blue  Stem, 
and  Macaroni  Wheats. 

4.  White  Wheat,  in  Pacific  Coast  and  Rocky  Mountain  States. 
Examples,  California  Club,  Sonora,  Oregon  Red  Chaff,  the  Little 
Club,  and  the  White  Winter. 

Grading,  etc.  — The  standard,  or  legal,  weight  per  bushel  of 
wheat  is  generally  sixty  pounds,  but  the  weight  of  a  bushel  by 
measure  may  range  from  fifty-five  to  sixty-five  pounds.  The  rules 
for  grading  Red  Winter  Wheat  are  as  follows: 


84  WHEAT 

No.  1  Red  Winter  Wheat  shall  be  pure  Red  Winter  Wheat  of 
both  light  and  dark  colors  of  the  shorter  berried  varieties,  sound, 
plump,  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Red  Winter  Wheat  shall  be  Red  Winter  Wheat  of  both 
light  and  dark  colors,  sound,  and  reasonably  clean. 

No.  3  Red  Winter  Wheat  shall  include  Red  Winter  Wheat  not 
clean  and  plump  enough  for  No.  2,  but  weighing  not  less  than 
fifty-four  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Red  Winter  Wheat  shall  include  Red  Winter  Wheat, 
damp,  musty,  or  from  any  cause  so  badly  damaged  as  to  render  it 
unfit  for  No.  3. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  a  brief  history  of  wheat. 

2.  Discuss  the  production  of  wheat. 

3.  Draw  a  map  of  the  United  States  showing  the  wheat  belts. 

4.  Discuss  wheat  cultivation. 

5.  Discuss  harvesting,  and  harvesting  machinery. 

6.  Name  the  leading  varieties  of  wheat. 

7.  Discuss  methods  of  grading  wheat. 

8.  Ascertain  the  amount  of  wheat  required  to  sow  an  acre  of  ground 
and  calculate  the  amount  required  to  sow  forty  acres. 

9.  Ascertain  the  average  yield  per  acre  for  wheat  in  your  locality,  and 
calculate  the  value  of  forty  acres  of  wheat  at  sixty  cents  per  bushel  and  also 
at  ninety  cents. 

10.  Estimate  the  cost  of  sowing  and  growing  an  acre  of  wheat. 

11.  After  deducting  for  the  expense  of  thrashing  and  marketing,  estimate 
the  profit  when  wheat  sells  for  ninety  cents  per  bushel. 

REFERENCES 

The  Cereals  in  America,  Thomas  Hunt. 
The  Book  of  Wheat,  Peter  Tracy  Dondlinger. 
North  America  (Geographical  Reader),  Carpenter. 
How  the  World  is  Fed  (Industrial  Reader),  Carpenter. 


XVI.  OATS  AND  OTHER  CEREAL  CROPS 

History.  — Unlike  wheat,  the  cultivation  of  oats  was  unknown  to 
the  ancient  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  We  have  good  grounds 
for  believing  that  oats  were  cultivated  in  the  east  temperate  por- 
tions of  Europe  and  possibly  in  western  Asia  by  the  prehistoric 
inhabitants  of  those  countries,  but  this  in  all  probability  was 
long  after  the  appearance  of  wheat  and  barley.  As  civiliza- 
tion advanced  the  production  of  oats  became  more  and  more 
important.  Oats  stand  third  in  acreage  and  value,  but  second  in 
the  number  of  bushels,  in  the  cereals  of  the  United  States. 

Yield  per  Acre.  —  In  most  of  the  Northern  States  forty  to  fifty 
bushels  is  about  the  average  yield,  although  in  many  places  sixty 
to  seventy-five  bushels  is  not  unusual.  In  the  South  Atlantic 
division  the  yield  is  often  less  than  ten  bushels  and  rarely  exceeds 
twenty  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  average  annual  yield  for  the 
whole  United  States  is  about  twenty-eight  bushels  to  the  acre. 
It  is  a  profitable  crop  clear  to  the  seacoast  in  all  the  States  border- 
ing on  the  Gulf. 

Varieties.  —  The  winter  varieties  are  grown  principally  south  of 
the  37th  parallel  and  the  spring  varieties  north  of  that  line  as 
far  as  the  65th  parallel,  but  seed  have  been  known  to  mature  as 
far  north  as  Alaska. 

Kinds  of  Soil  Needed.  —  Almost  any  tillable  soil  will  produce  a 
fair  crop  under  favorable  climatic  conditions  if  proper  cultivation 
is  given.  Oats  thrive  best  in  moist  cool  climates  like  that  of 
Scotland. 

Cultivation.  —  Plowing  for  oats  need  not  be  so  deep  as  for  wheat 
and  corn,  but  the  seed  bed  should  be  put  in  thorough  condition. 
Heavy  rollers  and  other  heavy  compacting  tools  are  to  be  avoided, 
but  a  light  roller  will  be  found  beneficial  if  run  over  the  ground 
either  before  the  oats  have  come  up  or  just  after.  Light  harrowing 
is  also  beneficial,  especially  when  a  hard  crust  has  formed  on  the 
ground. 

85 


86      OATS  AND  OTHER  CEREAL  CROPS 

Sowing  broadcast  is  recommended  by  some  Experiment 
Stations  and  drilling  by  others,  but  the  majority  of  farmers  seem 
to  prefer  the  former  method.  The  depth  of  sowing  varies  from  one 
to  four  inches,  but  as  a  rule  about  two  inches  will  be  the  proper 
depth.  The  winter  sowing  is  usually  during  the  period  between 


Harvesting  oats. 

October  1  and  November  15,  while  the  spring  seeding  takes  place 
in  January,  February,  and  March  according  to  location. 

Grading.  —  The  legal  weight  per  bushel  in  nearly  all  the 
States  is  thirty-two  pounds,  except  in  Maryland,  where  it  is 
twenty-six.  In  Idaho  the  average  weight  is  thirty-six,  and  in 
Canada  it  is  thirty-four.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  weight 
decreases  as  we  go  southward.  Elevator  men  frequently  resort 
to  what  is  known  as  clipping  in  order  to  increase  the  weight.  The 
following  classes  and  grades  of  oats  are  usually  recognized  by  ware- 
house commissioners: 

White  Oats,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

White  Clipped  Oats,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3. 

Oats,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

No.  1  White  Oats  are  white,  sound,  clean,  and  reasonably  free 
from  other  grain.  No.  2  White  Oats  are  seven  eighths  white, 
sweet,  reasonably  clean,  and  reasonably  free  from  other  grain. 


OATS  AND  OTHER  CEREAL  CROPS       87 

No.  3  White  Oats  are  seven  eighths  white,  but  not  sufficiently 
sound  and  clean  for  No.  2.  No.  4  White  Oats  are  seven  eighths 
white,  damp,  badly  damaged,  musty,  or  for  any  other  cause  unfit 
for  No.  3. 

Barley  and  Rye.  —  Barley  has  been  used  as  food  for  man  and 
beast  from  time  immemorial,  and  it  continued  to  be  our  chief  bread 
plant  down  to  the  sixteenth  century.  The  culture  of  rye,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  not  so  ancient,  and  we  first  hear  of  it  on  its  intro- 
duction into  the  Roman  Empire  about  the  time  of  the  Christian 
Era.  Barley  ranks  fourth  among  the  cereal  crops  of  the  United 
States,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable.  For  the  last  decade  the 
relative  values  of  our  staple  grains  were  as  follows:  Wheat,  $6.90 
per  acre;  Oats,  $7.24;  Maize,  $8.71;  Barley,  $8.34;  and  Rye,  $5.95. 

Barley  is  chiefly  used  as  a  food  for  domestic  animals  and  for 
malting  purposes,  while  the  grain  of  rye  is  used  for  the  production 
of  flour,  for  food  of  domestic  animals,  and  for  the 
production  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages. 
Rye  straw  is  used  to  a  large  extent  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper,  baskets,  boxes,  tables,  trunks, 
fans,  caps,  and  mats. 

Rice.  —  Among  all  nations  rice  is  held  in  high 
esteem.  The  Chinese  have  used  it  in  some  of 
their  ceremonies  since  the  year  2800  B.C.  In  their 
annual  seed  ceremony  of  sowing  five  kinds  of 
seed,  none  but  the  emperor  is  permitted  to  sow 
the  rice.  Even  in  our  own  country  the  scattering 
of  rice  at  a  marriage  ceremony  is  looked  upon  as 
a  favorable  omen. 

The  Saracen  invaders  introduced  rice  into  Spain 
and  Italy  about  the  fifteenth  century.  It  was 
introduced  into  the  Virginia  Colony  in  1647,  and 
into  South  Carolina  in  1694  by  the  captain  of  a 
Madagascar  trading  vessel,  who  presented  the  governor  with  a  bag 
of  rice.  Since  then  it  has  become  one  of  the  important  crops  of 
the  Southern  States,  especially  those  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  bulk  of  the  rice  crop  of  the  United  States  is  raised  in  Louisiana, 
South  Carolina,  Hawaii,  Texas,  Arkansas,  the  Philippines,  Georgia, 
and  North  Carolina. 


88 


OATS  AND  OTHER  CEREAL  CROPS 


Varieties.  —  There  are  no  less  than  five  types  of  rice,  but  they 
are  usually  classed  under  the  heads,  lowland  rice  and  upland  rice. 


Rice  field,  Japan. 

Upland  rice  may  be  grown  upon  any  soil  that  is  suitable  for  maize 
or  cotton,  and  the  method  of  cultivation  is  similar.     Lowland  rice 

must  be  grown 
on  low  ground, 
and  water  plays 
an  important 
part  in  its  culti- 
vation. The  rice 
is  sown  broadcast 
or  drilled  and 
covered  not  more 
than  two  inches. 
After  planting 
water  is  turned 
on  from  irrigat- 
ing ditches,  and  the  ground  is  kept  covered  with  water  for  sev- 
eral days  until  the  seed  begins  to  sprout;  then  it  is  drawn  off  until 
the  plants  get  a  good  start,  when  the  water  is  turned  on  again, 
and  the  ground  is  flooded  every  few  days  until  the  grain  is  ready 
to  harvest. 


Rice  field,  Georgia. 


OATS  AND  OTHER  CEREAL  CROPS       89 

Constant  change  of  water  is  necessary  to  prevent  stagnation. 
The  rice  should  be  covered  from  three  to  six  inches  with  water. 
This  flooding  begins  in  June  and  is  continued  until  August.  At 
this  time  the  water  is  drawn  off,  and  in  a  few  days  the  ground  dries 
and  becomes  hard  enough  to  hold  up  the  heavy  harvesting  ma- 
chines. Rice  may  be  harvested  with  the  self  binder  used  for  other 
grains  and  may  be  thrashed  with  the  ordinary  thrashing  machines. 

Grading.  — The  weight  of  a  bushel  of  rice  in  the  rough  is  forty-five 
pounds;  and  the  average  yield  per  acre  is  about  thirty-five  bushels 
in  this  country,  but  in  Hawaii  a  yield  of  seventy-five  or  eighty 
bushels  is  not  unusual.  The  New  Orleans  Board  of  Trade  has 
established  the  following  grades:  extra  fancy,  fancy  head,  choice 
head,  prime  head,  good  head,  fair  head,  ordinary,  screenings, 
common,  and  inferior  No.  2. 

Sorghum.  —  It  is  supposed  that  this  plant  is  a  native  of  Africa. 
It  has  long  been  cultivated  in  southern  Europe  and  China.  It  was 
introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1757  by  the  Jesuits,  who 
carried  it  to  Louisiana.  The  Kaffir  varieties  were  introduced 
about  1885  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
These  varieties  are  grown  principally  for  forage  and  for  their  seed. 
About  two  hundred  thousand  acres  of  sorghum  seed  were  grown 
in  the  United  States  according  to  the  last  census  under  the  name  of 
Kaffir  corn.  Nearly  all  of  this  was  grown  in  Kansas,  Oklahoma, 
Texas,  and  California.  This  did  not  include  another  variety  usually 
called  broom  corn.  Sorghum  thrives  where  it  is  too  cool  and  too 
dry  for  sugar  cane. 

Sorghum  plants  have  a  sweet  juice  in  their  cells,  which  is  ex- 
tracted by  crushing  and  pressing.  This  is  boiled  down  to  form 
sirup  or  molasses.  Many  farmers  in  the  Central  Western  States 
make  their  own  sorghum  sirup.  The  seed  is  sown  broadcast 
frequently,  but  more  often  is  drilled. 

Sugar  Cane  is  a  tropical  plant  and,  like  sweet  sorghum,  is  culti- 
vated for  the  sweet  juice  stored  up  in  the  cell  of  its  stalk.  It  is 
grown  extensively  in  the  South,  especially  in  the  States  bordering 
on  the  Gulf.  It  is  also  grown  extensively  in  Cuba  and  Hawaii. 
It  requires  a  long  time  to  mature  and  never  ripens  in  any  place 
that  has  frost.  The  period  required  is  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
months.  Sugar  cane  is  a  perennial  plant  which  reproduces  itseif 


90 


OATS  AND  OTHER  CEREAL  CROPS 


by  cuttings  containing  eyes  or  buds.  Two  or  more  continuous 
lines  of  these  are  deposited  in  an  open  furrow  and  these  are  care- 
fully covered  with  a  cultivator.  In  a  short  time  the  cane  sprouts 
and  grows  so  vigorously  that  it  soon  fills  the  entire  row.  The  kind 
of  cultivation  necessary  is  the  same  as  that  of  ordinary  maize  or 
Indian  corn.  The  rows  should  be  from  five  to  six  feet  apart. 


Sugar  cane  plantation,  Louisiana. 

The  one  planting  of  cane  generally  gives  two  crops.  The  first  is 
called  plant  cane  and  the  second  rattoon  or  first-year  stubble. 
Cane  will  come  up  every  year  from  the  stubble  of  the  preceding 
crop  for  fifteen  to  twenty  years,  but  each  succeeding  crop  grows 
smaller  and  smaller,  so  that  it  is  not  good  policy  to  follow  such  a 
plan. 

Sirup  and  Sirup  Making.  —  For  making  sirup  the  only  appara- 
tus needed  is  a  crushing  mill  and  an  evaporating  pan  or  kettle. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  careful  boiling,  constant  skimming,  and 
careful  straining.  In  the  large  sugar  mills  vacuum  pans,  clarifiers, 
centrifugal  or  whirling  machines,  pumps,  filter  presses,  and  much 
expensive  machinery  will  be  found.  When  sugar  is  to  be  made, 
the  sirup  is  drawn  into  a  vacuum  pan  where,  after  being  cooked 
for  some  time  at  a  high  vacuum,  a  mixture  of  sugar  and  molasses 
results.  This  is  transferred  to  a  centrifugal  machine  with  sides 


OATS  AND  OTHER  CEREAL  CROPS 


91 


of  gauze.  By  rapid  rotation  of  the  containing  vessel,  the  sirup  is 
thrown  through  the  gauze  into  an  outer  vessel,  while  the  sugar 
remains  in  the  inner  containing  vessel. 

Yields.  —  In  the  United  States  cane  usually  produces  from  fif- 
teen to  forty  tons,  in  Java  forty  tons,  and  Hawaii  sixty  to  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  tons  to  the  acre.  A  ton  of  Louisiana  cane  in  the 


Cutting  sugar  cane,  Porto  Rico. 

refinery  will  make  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred 
pounds  of  sugar,  and  about  three  gallons  of  low-grade  molasses. 
Many  planters  devote  all  their  energies  to  manufacturing  sirup  and 
realize  from  three  hundred  to  six  hundred  gallons  of  sirup  to  the 
acre. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  a  brief  history  of  oats. 

2.  What  is  the  average  yield  of  this  crop? 

3.  Name  the  leading  varieties  of  oats. 

4.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  suited  to  this  crop  ? 

5.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  oats. 

6.  Describe  the  system  of  grading  of  this  grain. 

7.  Discuss  the  value  of  barley  and  rye. 

8.  Give  a  brief  history  of  rice. 


92       OATS  AND  OTHER  CEREAL  CROPS 

9.    Discuss  its  cultivation. 

10.  Describe  the  plan  of  grading  rice. 

11.  Give  a  brief  history  of  sorghum. 

12.  Discuss  the  growing  of  sugar  cane. 

13.  Discuss  sirup  and  sirup  making. 

14.  What  can  you  say  of  the  yields  of  sugar  cane  ? 

15.  Calculate  the  value  of  forty  acres  of  oats  at  sixty  bushels  to  the  acre 
when  oats  are  worth  thirty-five  cents  per  bushel. 

16.  Compare  the  value  of  the  oats  in  problem  15  with  the  value  of  forty 
acres  of  corn  at  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre  when  corn  is  worth  forty  cents  per 
bushel. 

17.  Compare  these  values  with  average  production  and  average  values  in 
your  own  locality  on  forty  acres. 

REFERENCES 

Forage  and  Fiber  Crops,  Thomas  F.  Hunt. 

Forage  Crops  other  than  Grasses,  Thomas  Shaw. 

North  America  (Geographical  Reader),  Carpenter. 

Corn  Judging,  Shamel. 

Corn  Breeding,  Hopkins. 

Varieties  of  Corn,  Station  Bulletin  57,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Barley,  Wahl-Henius. 

Rice,  William  C.  Stubbs  and  W.  R.  Dodson,  Louisiana  Bulletin  No.  61 

Rice,  Amory  Austin. 

Kaffir  Corn,  C.  C.  Geogeson. 

Broom  Corn,  Charles  P.  Hartley. 

Sorghum  as  a  Forage  Crop,  Thomas  A.  Williams. 

Sorghum  Sirup  Manufacture,  A.  A.  Denton. 


XVII.     FORAGE  CROPS 

WE  have  already  learned  that  crops  grown  for  hay  or  pasture 
are  called  forage  crops.  If  the  crop  is  gathered  and  fed  before 
ripening,  it  is  called  green  fodder;  if  it  is  cut  and  cured  or  dried 
before  feeding,  it  is  called  dry  fodder.  Forage  crops  may  be 
divided  into  the  following  classes: 

1.  The  perennial  grasses,  such  as  timothy,  red  top,  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  orchard  grass,  Bermuda  grass,  etc. 

2.  The   annual  forage  plants,  such  as  foxtail  millet,  broom- 
corn  millet,  pearl  millet,  etc. 

3.  Leguminous  plants,  including  clover,  alsike,  white  clover, 
alfalfa,  bur  clover,  Japan  clover,  vetches,  velvet  bean,  field  bean, 
field  peas,  peanuts,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  etc. 

Green  Feed.  —  1.  Pastures.  Any  field  on  which  animals  graze 
is  called  a  pasture.  Pastures  are  divided  into  two  classes,  perma- 
nent and  temporary. 

2.  Temporary  Pasture.  —  A  temporary  pasture  is  a  field  contain- 
ing some  crop  intended  to  furnish  temporary  grazing.     Wheat, 
oats,  rye,  barley,  are  often  sowed  for  this  purpose.     Annuals, 
biennials,  and  perennials  serve  this  purpose  equally  well. 

3.  Permanent   Pastures.  —  Permanent  pastures   are  fields  on 
which  perennial  crops  are  planted  and  grown  year  after  year. 

One  of  the  best  perennial  crops  is  the  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
which  reaches  its  best  development  in  the  region  between  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  and  the  Mississippi  River.  It  does  not 
grow  well  in  dry  climates  or  on  sandy  soils.  Moist  climates  seem 
to  suit  it  best.  It  makes  a  compact  sod  and  is  unexcelled  for  lawns 
and  ornamental  purposes.  Its  greatest  fault  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  fails  to  supply  a  desirable  pasture  through  the  heated  period 
in  July  and  August. 

Bermuda  Grass.  —  The  principal  pasture  plant  of  the  cotton 
States  is  Bermuda  grass,  which  is  highly  nutritious  and  is  very 
productive.  It  seems  well  adapted  to  the  semiarid  regions  of  the 
West  and  also  grows  well  in  the  sandy  soils  of  Florida  and  other 

93 


94 


FORAGE  CROPS 


States.  Under  favorable  conditions  it  will  yield  from  two  to  four 
tons  of  hay  to  the  acre,  and  may  be  cut  two  or  more  times  during 
the  same  season. 


On  a  blue  grass  stock  farm. 

Red  top.  —  This  grass  forms  a  sod  very  quickly  and  generally 
produces  an  abundance  of  pasturage.     It  is  less  palatable,  however, 

than  many  of  the  other  varieties 
used  for  pasturage.  It  thrives 
under  a  wide  range  of  both  soil 
and  climate. 

Other  Forms  of  Green  Feed.  — 
Besides  the  pasture  forms  of 
green  feed  we  have  two  others 
known  as  soiling  and  silage, 
which  should  be  considered  at 
this  point. 

Soiling.  — When  crops  are  cut 
^ile  green?  the  process 
soiling,  and  such  crops 
are    known    as    soiling    crops. 
Maize  and  Kaffir  are  often  fed 
in  this  way. 

Silage  consists  of  green  crops 


Silo. 


stored  in  pits  or  in  air-tight  rooms  above  the  ground, 
partment  in  which  the  food  is  stored  is  called  a  silo. 


This  com- 


FORAGE  CROPS  95 

All  crops  may  be  used  for  making  silage,  but  green  corn  is  the 
one  generally  used.  Silos  above  ground  may  be  built  of  stone, 
concrete,  brick,  or  other  material.  When  wood  is  used,  the  wall 
may  be  of  upright  studding  with  an  airtight  lining,  or  of  staves 
bound  together  with  hoops.  Silage  is  excellent  for  milch  cows, 
and  every  farmer  should  have  a  supply  for  them.  The  Romans 
and  some  of  the-  early  Europeans  were  familiar  with  the  uses  of 
silage  over  two  thousand  years  ago.  In  this  country  it  has  been 
known  since  1875. 

The  Annual  Forage  Plants.  —  Plants  of  this  class  produce  a 
strong  vigorous  growth  and  mature  during  the  course  of  a  single 
year.  Many  of  the  cereals  furnish  by-products  that  can  be  util- 
ized as  forage.  Corn  and  oats  are  both  often  planted  for  this 
purpose.  The  stalks  and  blades  of  the  corn  together  with  the 
shucks  make  good  feed  for  stock  whether  fed  green  or  dry.  In 
using  this  kind  of  forage  it  is  not  advisable  to  permit  cattle  to 
pick  over  stalks  that  hogs  have  been  running  over  and  trampling 
under  their  feet  as  it  is  likely  to  cause  disease.  When  corn  is  used 
for  this  fodder,  the  stalks  are  cut  shortly  before  they  mature  and 
are  placed  in  shocks  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  apart.  Oats  when  used 
as  a  forage  may  be  pastured  while  green  like  ordinary  grass  or  they 
may  be  cut  after  maturity,  and  put  in  shocks  or  ricks  as  may  suit  the 
fancy  of  the  farmer,  and  later  may  be  fed  to  the  stock  at  his  con- 
venience. In  this  form  they  are  known  as  sheaf  oats.  In  addition 
to  the  cereals  the  next  most  important  annual  forage  plants  are 
the  various  kinds  of  millet  grown  in  this  country.  It  is  estimated 
that  millets  comprise  less  than  5  per  cent  of  our  supply  of  hay  and 
forage.  Sorghum  and  Kaffir  corn  are  also  grown  extensively  as 
forage. 

Millets.  —  The  farmers  in  Kansas,  Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Nebraska 
grow  a  great  deal  of  millet.  It  has  also  been  successfully  grown 
in  Oklahoma,  Illinois,  Texas,  the  Dakotas,  and  in  Michigan. 
Recent  experiments  and  observations,  indicate  that  millets  may 
be  profitably  grown  in  many  of  the  Southern  States.  The 
millets  known  in  this  country  may  be  roughly  grouped  as  follows: 
(1)  broom-corn  millet,  (2)  foxtail  millet,  (3)  barnyard  millet, 
(4)  pearl  millet. 

Millets  may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  coarse  annual  grass,  very 


96 


FORAGE  CROPS 


palatable  and  nutritious  when  fed  to  domestic  animals  under  proper 
conditions.  When  millet  is  permitted  to  mature,  it  is  too  coarse 
and  woody  to  be  relished  or  digested.  The  sowing  is  done  in  May, 
June,  or  July  according  to  the  beginning  of  the  warm  season  in 
the  various  parts  of  our  country.  The  amount  of  seed  sown  to  the 
acre  varies  from  one  to  three  pecks.  Millets,  on  account  of  their 
rapid  growth  and  ability  to  resist  drought,  are  frequently  sown  in 
hot  weather  for  the  purpose  of  subduing  and  choking  out  weeds. 

Leguminous  Plants.  — The  legumes  include  a  large  number  of 
plants  and  are  so  called  because  their  seeds  grow  in  pods  or  legumes. 
These  plants  are  of  great  value  because  they  fer- 
tilize and  enrich  the  soil  besides  furnishing  excel- 
lent forage  crops.  They  sond  their  roots  deep  into 
the  soil  and  bring  up  a  rich  supply  of  mineral 
constituents  that  cannot  be  reached  by  ordinary 
plants.  They  also  take  up  a  great  deal  of  nitrogen 
from  the  air,  which  is  added  to  the  soil  on  the 
maturity  of  the  plants  and  the  soil  is  enriched  to 
that  extent.  The  leguminous  forage  plants  in- 
clude the  clovers,  alfalfa,  the  vetches,  cowpeas, 
soy  bean,  peanut,  the  velvet  bean,  and  others. 

Nitrifying  Bacteria.  —  Leguminous  plants  con- 
tain a  large  amount  of  proteid  and  take  up  free 
nitrogen  through  minute  organisms  which  estab- 
lish themselves  in  small  nodules  or  tubercles 
found  on  the  roots  of  these  plants.  These 
tubercles  may  be  round,  oval,  pear-shaped  or 
very  irregular,  and  may  vary  in  size  from  six  hundredths  to 
three  tenths  of  an  inch.  The  organisms  which  occupy  these 
tubercles  are  microscopic  plants  known  as  bacteria.  Slight 
differences  are  found  in  the  bacteria  associated  with  the  various 
kinds  of  legumes,  and  in  a  few  cases  one  form  of  tubercle  bacteria 
can  adapt  itself  to  some  other  plant  as  a  host.  It  is  thought 
that  in  time  we  may  be  able  to  develop  these  bacteria  artificially 
without  the  agency  of  the  legumes  and  apply  them  to  the  soil  in 
such  a  way  that  it  would  be  enriched  with  nitrogen  through 
their  presence,  even  when  the  plants  grown  on  the  soil  were  not 
leguminous  plants  or  their  allied  families.  The  United  States 


Root  of  soy  bean, 
with  nodules. 


FORAGE  CROPS 


97 


Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  has  already  conducted 
a  number  of  successful  experiments  along  this  line.  The  intro- 
duction of  these  bacteria  into  the  soil  or  plant  is  usually  styled 
inoculation. 

Methods  of  Inoculation.  —  In  general  there  are  three  ways  of 
inoculating  the  soil: 

1.  By  growing  the  same  plant  until  the  bacteria  formerly  present 
in  the  soil  adapt  themselves  to  the  host. 

2.  By  adding  artificial  cultures  of  the  proper  form  of  bacteria. 
The  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  is  now  distributing 
liquid  cultures  in  small  hermet- 
ically sealed  tubes  to  farmers, 

with  full  instructions  for  increas- 
ing and  applying  the  bacteria. 

3.  The  third  method  is  the 
direct  application  of  soil  from  a 
field    rich  in    nitrogen-bearing 
bacteria  at  the  rate  of  one  hun- 
dred pounds  or  more   to    the 
acre. 

A  few  days  before  planting, 
the  fresh  bacteria-laden  earth 
should  be  scattered  over  the 
field  and  immediately  harrowed 
into  the  soil.  Another  method 
is  to  flood  the  field,  when  pos- 
sible, with  water  strongly  in- 
oculated with  the  bacteria. 

The  Clovers.  —  This  group  of 
plants  comprises  a  large  number 
of  species,  variously  estimated 
from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to 
three  hundred;  but  the  varieties 
most  generally  known  are:  crimson  clover  (annual);  red  clover 
(biennial);  Alsike  or  Swedish  clover  (triennial);  white  clover 
(perennial) . 

Clovers  are  profitable  crops  for  forage  purposes  and  at  the  same 
time  are  valuable  as  soil  improvers,  because  they  enrich  the  soil 

PRAC.  AGRICUL.  —  7 


Tubercles  on  clover  roots. 


98  FORAGE  CROPS 

with  humus  and  nitrogen,  while  their  long  penetrating  roots  loosen 
up  the  soil  and  improve  its  physical  character. 

Crimson  Clover  has  come  into  general  notice  in  this  country  only 
since  1890,  but  it  is  said  to  have  been  cultivated  in  very  early 
times  near  the  Pyrenees  Mountains  in  north  Spain  and  France. 
It  is  grown  in  the  South  Atlantic  States  north  of  the  cotton  belt 
on  sandy,  loose  soils.  It  is  valued  chiefly  as  a  cover  crop  or  for 
soiling. 

Red  Clover.  —  This  useful  crop  is  said  to  have  been  first  culti- 
vated in  Persia,  and  was  brought  during  the  fifteenth  century  to 
Spain  and  Italy,  thence  to  Holland,  and  in  1633  was  carried  from 
there  to  England.  Its  first  appearance  in  this  country  was  in 
Pennsylvania  about  1770.  Red  clover  may  be  found  growing 
in  the  United  States  east  of  the  100th  meridian  and  north  of 
the  35th  parallel  of  latitude.  It  is  also  grown  to  some  extent 
in  Washington  and  Oregon  along  the  Pacific  coast.  Red  clover 
may  be  sown  at  different  times  of  the  year  according  to  the  climate 
and  season,  but  good  results  are  usually  obtained  from  early  spring 
sowing.  Many  farmers  favor  fall  sowing,  especially  when  wheat 
and  clover  are  sown  together.  Under  favorable  conditions  red 
clover  wilt  yield  two  crops  a  year,  but  the  second  crop  is  not  always 
satisfactory  for  feeding  purposes,  on  account  of  its  unfavorable 
effect  on  stock.  On  account  of  the  high  price  paid  for  clover  seed 
many  farmers  thrash  their  crop  and  sell  the  seed.  The  legal  weight 
is  usually  about  sixty  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

Alsike  or  Swedish  Clover  gets  its  name  from  the  village  of  Alsike, 
in  Sweden,  where  it  was  first  cultivated.  From  there  it  was  carried 
about  1834  to  England,  and  later  it  was  brought  to  America. 

Alsike  clover  closely  resembles  white  clover,  but  the  flower  heads 
are  slightly  larger  and  have  a  decided  pink  color.  It  is  grown  for 
pasture  and  also  for  hay.  It  thrives  in  many  soils  and  climates 
where  red  clover  produces  an  unsatisfactory  growth.  Sixty 
pounds  is  the  usually  accepted  weight  for  a  bushel  of  the  seed,  but  a 
bushel  by  measurement  will  generally  run  from  eighty  to  ninety. 

White  Clover  grows  well  throughout  the  United  States  in  moist 
and  well-drained  soils.  It  is  much  used  for  pasturage,  but  in  the 
months  of  July  and  August  horses  grazing  on  it  often  slobber 
excessively  on  account  of  the  acrid  nature  of  the  seed.  White 


FORAGE   CROPS  99 

clover  is  often  sown  on  lawns  with  blue  grass.  It  is  also  often 
sown  for  the  benefit  of  bees,  which  draw  upon  it  as  a  honey  plant. 

Alfalfa.  —  The  value  of  alfalfa  for  hay  and  forage  purposes  has 
been  known  from  very  early  times.  It  was  introduced  into  Greece 
about  476  B.C.  from  Media  and  was  afterwards  grown  extensively 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Alfalfa  is  adapted  .to  a  warm  climate, 
but  is  grown  over  a  wide  area  in  the  United  States.  It  grows 
better  in  soils  that  are  alkaline  than  in  those  that  are  acid.  Its 
roots  penetrate  to  great  depths  and  thus  enable  the  plant  to  resist 
the  blighting  influences  of  ordinary  dry  weather  and  prolonged 
droughts.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  find  the  roots  descend- 
ing from  ten  to  twenty  feet  in  the  ground,  and  cases  have  been 
known  where  alfalfa  roots  have  been  found  at  a  depth  of  more  than 
fifty  feet. 

Before  alfalfa  is  sown  the  ground  must  be  properly  prepared. 
The  ground  should  be  plowed  deep  and  should  be  well  drained  and 
well  ventilated. 

Fifteen  to  thirty  pounds  of  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre.  Alfalfa 
may  be  sown  any  time  during  the  year  from  April  to  October, 
according  to  the  climate,  season,  and  location.  Farmers  in  the 
Northern  States  usually  do  their  sowing  in  the  spring.  From  three 
to  five  cuttings  may  be  made,  according  to  the  season  and  state  of 
the  weather.  This  fact  makes  alfalfa  one  of  the  most  valuable 
crops  that  a  farmer  can  raise.  It  takes  up  nitrogen  from  the  air 
and  at  the  same  time  enriches  the  soil  by  bringing  up  vast  stores 
of  plant  food  from  the  depths  of  the  earth  to  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
Alfalfa  makes  splendid  pasturage  for  horses  and  hogs,  but  is  not  so 
satisfactory  for  cattle  and  sheep  unless  mixed  with  dry  roughage. 
Alfalfa  does  not  reach  its  prime  until  the  third  or  fourth  year  after 
planting.  The  first  sowing  usually  keeps  the  soil  stocked  for  ten 
to  fifteen  years  without  further  sowing. 

Vetches.  —  There  are  some  fifteen  or  twenty  kinds  of  vetch,  but 
only  two  are  grown  in  this  country  to  any  great  extent.  These 
are  the  spring  vetch,  widely  used  as  a  soiling  crop  in  England,  and 
the  winter  vetch,  which  is  grown  for  hay  in  Washington,  Oregon, 
California,  and  in  some  of  the  New  England  States.  The  latter  is 
a  winter  annual  with  trailing  stems  which  grow  from  three  to  nine 
inches  in  length. 


100 


FORAGE  CROPS 


It  bears  bluish  purple  flowers  which  produce  pods  filled  with 
about  six  brown  or  brownish  black  seeds.  Winter  vetch  has  been 
found  especially  valuable  in  the  improvement  of  poor,  sandy,  and 
gravelly  soils.  It  may  be  sown  in  the  spring,  but  the  most  satis- 
factory results  are  obtained  when  it  is  sown  in  the  fall.  This  is  a 
crop  that  our  farmers  should  learn  more  about. 

Cowpeas.  — The  cultivation  of  cowpeas  was  carried  on  at  an 
early  age  by  the  Orientals,  who  used  them  not  only  as  a  forage  crop 
but  also  as  an  article  of  diet.  The  cowpea  is  one  of  the  principal 
forage  crops  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  South  Central  States.  Under 
favorable  conditions  they  have  been  grown  as  far  north  as  Wiscon- 
sin and  the  New  England  States.  The  cowpea  is  a  strong  feeding 
annual  which  adapts  itself  readily  to  any  ordinary  soil  and  climate. 
It  grows  on  thin  poor  soil  where  other  crops  make  a  failure,  and  is  a 
valuable  soil  improver,  especially  when  the  plants  are  plowed  under 
while  green.  The  time  of  seeding  varies  according  to  the  climate, 
but  in  the  Southern  States,  June,  July,  and  August  are  considered 
the  best  months.  The  amount  of  seed  sown  varies  from  a  peck  to 
three  or  more  bushels.  Experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  drill- 
ing is  the  most  satis- 
factory method  of 
planting.  It  is  also 
frequently  found  ad- 
visable to  sow  cow- 
peas  with  some  other 
crop,  expecially  mil- 
let or  sorghum. 

The  Soy  Bean,  or 
soja  bean,  is  a  native 
of  China  and  Japan, 
but  it  grows  well  in 
the  United  States, 
especially  in  the  States  of  the  corn  belt  region.  Like  the  cowpea, 
it  is  a  great  soil  renovator,  and  is  much  used  by  some  farmers  for 
this  purpose.  This  plant  is  remarkable  for  the  large  and  abundant 
tubercles  found  upon  its  roots.  It  is  a  hardy,  upright  annual, 
growing  usually  to  the  height  of  three  feet  or  more.  It  bears 
violet-tinted  flowers,  which  are  small  and  inconspicuous.  Later 


Bean  Harvester. 


FORAGE   CROPS 


101 


these  produce  pods  which  contain  the  seed.  In  planting  the  seed 
should  be  drilled  so  that  the  drill  rows  will  be  thirty  to  thirty-six 
inches  apart.  The  amount  of  seed  sown  varies  from  a  peck  to 
one  third  of  a  bushel  per  acre.  In  harvesting  the  seed  the  work 
may  be  done  by  hand,  but  this  is  slow  and  expensive.  When 
large  crops  are  raised,  the  bean  harvester  is  generally  used. 

The  harvester,  which  is  mounted  on  wheels,  is  fitted  with  rods  on 
rolling  dividers  so  that  the  vines  are  gathered  two  rows  at  a  time 
and  brought  together  at  the  rear  end  of  the  machine  in  a  windrow, 
the  plants  being  almost  entirely  free  from  roots  and  dust.  The 
roots  are  severed  by  two  knives  which  are  set  in  a  V-shaped  posi- 
tion, and  adjusted  by  levers  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  be  set 
to  run  just  below  the  surface.  In  harvesting  the  crop  these  knives 
not  only  sever  the  plant  from  the  root,  but  in  passing  beneath 
the  surface  they  also  stir  the  soil  and  leave  it  in  an  excellent 
condition  for  wheat.  Planting  the  beans  in  rows  thirty  to  thirty- 
six  inches  apart  facilitates  harvesting  where  one  of  these  machines 
is  used. 

Soy  beans  may  be  frequently  sown  after  other  crops  have  ma- 
tured and  a  fair  yield  be  obtained.  In  Oklahoma  and  in  a  few  other 
States  it  has  been  grown  successfully  on  the  same  ground  after  the 
wheat  crop  has  been  removed. 

A  study  of  the  following  table  taken  from  Bulletin  No.  74  of  the 
Oklahoma  Experiment  Station  will  be  of  interest: 

"  TABLE  I.     THE  COMPOSITION  OF  COWPEAS  AND  SOY  BEANS  IN 
COMPARISON  WITH  OTHER  FEEDS 


FEEDING  STUFFS 

WATER 

ASH 

PROTEIN 

CRUDE 
FIBER 

NIT. 

FREE   EX. 

ETHER 
Ex. 

Soy  Bean  seed  .... 

10.8 

4.7 

34.0 

4.8 

28.8 

16.9 

Cowpea  seed     .... 

14.8 

3.2 

20.8 

4.1 

55.7 

1.4 

Cotton  seed      .... 

10.3 

3.5 

18.4 

23.2 

24.7 

19.9 

Indian  Corn  —  grain 

10.6 

1.5 

10.3 

2.2 

70.4 

5.0 

Soy  Bean  hay  .... 

11.3 

7.2 

15.4 

22.3 

38.6 

5.2 

Cowpea  hay      .... 

10.7 

7.5 

16.6 

20.1 

42.2 

2.2 

Alfalfa  hay       .... 

8.4 

7.4 

14.3 

25.0 

42.7 

2.2 

Indian  Corn  stover     .     . 

40.5 

3.4 

3.8 

19.7 

31.5 

1.1 

<S^^*P5* 

°f   THf 

UNIVERSITY 


102  FORAGE  CROPS 

"  In  this  table  sufficient  data  are  submitted  to  enable  one  to  make 
a  threefold  comparison.  First,  cowpea  seed  and  soy  bean  seed 
are  compared  with  Indian  corn  grain  and  cotton  seed,  and  the 
conclusion  is  self-evident  that  these  grains  are  appreciably  richer 
in  ash  and  protein  than  the  grain  obtained  from  the  Indian  corn 
plant.  The  soy  bean  contains  a  high  percentage  of  fat,  and  a 
comparatively  low  percentage  of  the  nitrogen  free  extract,  while 
with  Indian  corn  the  reverse  is  the  case.  The  soy  bean  stands  in 
advance  of  the  cowpea  notably  in  fat  and  protein.  It  is  also 
clear  that  the  grain  produced  by  these  legumes  compares  very 
favorably  with  cotton  seed.  The  figures  also  indicate  that  soy 
bean  and  cowpea  hay  are  slightly  superior  to  alfalfa  from  the 
standpoint  of  composition,  while  corn  fodder  is  decidedly  inferior 
to  any  of  these  legumes.  The  mixing  of  soy  bean  hay  with  corn 
fodder  during  the  ensiling  process  would  appear  to  be  a  good  prac- 
tice, since  an  improved  product  is  the  result." 

The  Velvet  Bean  is  a  native  of  India,  which  was  originally 
introduced  into  the  United  States  as  an  ornamental  garden  plant 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  velvet  bean  is  a  large  tropical 
plant  that  produces  vines  thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  length.  It  bears 
purple  flowers  which  produce  pods  covered  with  a  dark  velvety 
down  and  from  three  to  six  seeds  are  found  in  each  pod.  It 
grows  well  in  the  cotton  States  on  light  sandy  soils.  The  growth 
of  the  plant  is  greatly  increased  when  potash  and  acid  phosphates 
are  added  to  the  soil.  It  yields  generally  twenty  to  thirty  bushels 
of  seed  and  from  two  to  four  tons  of  hay. 

The  Florida  Beggar  Weed  is  an  annual  which  grows  on  rich, 
moist,  sandy  lands  of  Florida  and  the  Gulf  States.  It  is  readily 
eaten  by  stock  and  makes  very  good  pasturage.  It  also  furnishes 
very  satisfactory  feed  when  cut  and  used  as  hay. 

The  Peanut  is  a  trailing  annual  plant  which  grows  from  one 
to  two  feet  high  and  matures  its  fruit  underground.  It  is  valu- 
able as  food  when  roasted,  and  it  is  also  used  in  making  candy, 
oil,  and  peanut  butter.  Some  varieties,  like  the  Spanish  peanut, 
are  grown  for  hay  and  prove  to  be  very  satisfactory  feed  for 
stock.  This  variety  is  said  to  be  an  ideal  hog  food,  and  an  acre 
of  it  will  produce  from  three  to  five  times  as  many  pounds  of  flesh 
on  a  hog  as  the  ordinary  Indian  corn.  The  seeds  are  planted  in 


FORAGE  CROPS  103 

hills  by  hand  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  apart,  or  they  may  be 
drilled  in  rows,  sometime  in  May.  The  crop  matures  early  and 
should  be  harvested  before  frost  in  the  fall.  Peanuts  are  grown 
in  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  they  are  produced  mostly 
in  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  the 
South  Atlantic  States. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  classes  of  forage  crops  and  give  examples. 

2.  Define  (a)  pasture,  (6)  temporary  pasture,  (c)  permanent  pasture. 

3.  Discuss  (a)  Kentucky  blue  grass,  (&)  Bermuda  grass,  (c)  redtop  grass. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  soiling  crops  ? 

5.  Discuss  silage. 

6.  Discuss  the  annual  forage  plants. 

7.  Describe  the  various  kinds  of  millets. 

8.  Discuss  the  legumes. 

9.  Describe  the  three  methods  of  inoculating  legumes. 

10.  Name  the  clovers. 

11.  Describe  (a)  crimson  clover,  (6)  red  clover,  (c)  Alsike  clover,  (d)  white 
clover. 

12.  Discuss  alfalfa. 

13.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  cowpeas. 

14.  Describe  the  cultivation  of  the  soy  bean. 

15.  Which  kind  of  forage  crop  enriches  the  soil  the  most  ? 

16.  How  does  the  soy  bean  compare  with  Indian  corn  in  the  amount 
of  nitrogen  it  contains  ?     Compare  both  as  to  the  amount  of  protein. 

17.  Calculate  the  relative  amounts  of  water,  protein,  and  nitrogen  in 
one  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds  of  corn  and  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  pounds  of  cowpeas. 

REFERENCES 

Alfalfa,  Coburn. 

Clover  Farming,  Wallace. 

Silos  and  Silage,  Miles. 

Forage  Crops  Other  than  Grasses,  Thomas  Shaw. 

Leguminous  Crops,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  278. 


XVIII.     ROOT  CROPS   AND   THE   TURNIP   FAMILY 

THERE  are  several  kinds  of  plants  whose  roots  and  thickened 
stems  have  been  found  valuable  as  food.  They  may  be  placed 
in  about  four  groups:  The  first  group  includes  garden  beets,  sugar 
beets,  and  mangel- wurzels;  the  second  embraces  turnips,  ruta- 
bagas, kohl-rabi,  cabbage,  rape,  and  kale;  the  third  includes  the 
carrot,  and  allied  forms;  and  the  fourth  embraces  the  parsnip,  etc. 
The  Beet.  —  The  beet  is  strictly  speaking  a  modified  stem  and 
primary  root,  the  latter  being  really  a  continuation  of  the  former. 
The  main  root  is  covered  with  a  number  of  fine  hairlike  rootlets 
which  drink  in  the  nourishment  and  moisture  from  the  soil.  Beets 
grow  best  in  a  moist  climate,  but  when  properly  irrigated  they  have 
also  been  successfully  grown  in  dry  regions.  In  addition  to  the 
ordinary  garden  beet,  large  quantities  of  sugar  beets  are  grown  in 
this  country,  from  which  a  high  grade  of  sugar  is  made.  In  Color- 
ado, California,  and  other  Western  States  are  many  large  sugar-beet 
factories  which  manufacture  large  quantities 
of  beet  sugar.  Sugar  beets  are  also  largely 
and  successfully  used  as  food  for  stock. 

Mangel-wurzels.  — These  plants  generally 
have  flesh-colored  roots  covered  with  white, 
pink,  red,  orange,  or  purple  skin.  Instead  of 
growing  its  main  root  entirely  below  the 
soil,  as  is  the  case  with  the  sugar  beet,  it 
frequently  has  two  thirds  or  more  of  the 
root  above  ground.  It  is  valuable  only  for 

K.om-rabi. 

stock  feeding. 

Turnip  Family.  —  This  group  is  supposed  to  have  arisen  from  a 
plant  native  to  the  coasts  of  western  and  southern  Europe.  It  was 
introduced  into  England  about  1650.  The  leading  forms  that  have 
been  the  outgrowth  of  this  plant  are  the  cabbage  tribe,  including 
the  common  cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  kohl-rabi,  Brussels 
sprouts,  and  kale,  and  in  another  distinct  tribe  we  find  rape, 

104 


HOOT  CROPS,   ETC. 


105 


Cabbage. 


Swedish  turnip,  and  the  common  turnip.  Both  forms  of  turnips 
consist  of  a  thickened  stem  and  root.  The  kohl-rabi  has  a  stem 
which  forms  a  turniplike  enlargement  above  the  ground.  In  the 
cabbage  we  find  round, 
thick,  and  fleshy,  strongly 
veined  leaves  which  form  a 
rounded  head  on  the  sum- 
mit of  a  short  and  stout 
stem.  This  plant  is  a  bien- 
nial and  consequently  waits 
until  the  second  year  before 
forming  its  seed. 

Cauliflower  and  broccoli 
have  nearly  all  the  nourish- 
ing matter  concentrated  in 
short,  imperfect  flower 
branches  collected  into  a 
flat  head.  Kale  is  very  much  like  the  natural  form  of  the  parent 
species  in  that  its  fleshy  leaves  do  not  form  a  head.  The  plant 

known  as  Brussels  sprouts 
has  numerous  small  heads 
along  the  stem  below  the 
top  leaves.  Common  tur- 
nips and  rutabagas  or 
Swedish  turnips  are  both 
valuable  stock  foods  and 
grow  well  in  cool,  damp 
climates.  They  may  be 
sown  in  beds  or  rows  ac- 
cording to  the  taste  of  the 
planter.  The  seed  should 
be  sown  at  a  depth  of  one 
fourth  to  one  half  an  inch. 
In  growing  cabbage  the 
seed  may  be  sown  in  beds  and  the  young  plants  transplanted 
twenty  to  thirty  inches  apart. 

Radish.  — This  plant  is  one  of  our  common  vegetables  with 
which  all  are  familiar.     In  sowing  we  should  scatter  from  fifty  to 


Cauliflower. 


106 


ROOT  CROPS,   ETC. 


Brussels  sprouts. 


one  hundred  seeds  to  the  square  foot  and  cover  with  a  light  layer 

of  soil  not  more  than  one  fourth  of  an  inch  deep.  The  soil  should 
be  kept  moist,  but  it  must  have  plenty  of 
ventilation.  Many  sow  radish  seed  in 
rows  instead  of  in  beds.  To  keep  a  con- 
stant supply  successional  sowing  from  a 
week  to  ten  days  apart  should  be  made. 
Fertilizers  containing  nitrate  of  soda  when 
added  to  the  soil  improve  the  flavor  of 
the  radish.  It  is  found  best  not  to  sow 
radishes  where  radishes,  turnips,  or  cab- 
bage were  grown  on  the  soil  during  the 
preceding  year. 

Horseradish  is  grown  from  pieces  of  the 
roots  of  the  plant,  since  seed  is  rarely 
ever  produced  by  it.  The  roots  of  the 
plant  are  grated  and  used  for  flavoring. 
Rape.  —  Of  all  the  forage  crops  there 
are  none  that  will  give  so  large  a  yield  for 

so  small  an  outlay.     It  is  especially  valuable  for  green  manuring 

and  pasture.     It  grows  rapidly  and  readily  adapts. itself  to  dif- 
ferent soils.     Farmers  prize  it  highly  in  feeding  for  both  pigs  and 

sheep.     The  best  variety  to  plant  in  this 

country  is  probably  the  D  vvarf  Essex. 
The  ground  should  be  prepared  the 

same  as  for  turnips,  and  the  seed  may 

be  sown  in  June  or  July  in  rows  a  little 

over  two  feet  apart.     It  may  be  either 

drilled  or  sown  broadcast.    The  amount 

of  seed  sown  varies  from  three  to  five 

pounds  per  acre. 

Carrots.  — The  carrot  is  one  of  our 

most  useful  garden  vegetables  and  for 

feeding  stock  it  can  hardly  be  surpassed. 

It  is  especially  recommended  for  horses 

and  milch  cows.     Any  land  if  properly 

cultivated  will  yield  satisfactory  crops. 

It  is  best  to  sow  the  seed  early  in  the  Radish. 


ROOT  CROPS,   ETC.  107 

spring,  but  good  crops  have  been  grown  from  seed  sown  as  late  as 
the  middle  of  June.  For  field  culture  it  is  best  to  drill  the  seed  in 
rows  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  apart.  The  depth  of  the 
planting  should  not  exceed  one  half  inch,  and  when  possible  the 
soil  should  be  firmed  by  rolling. 

Salsify.  — This  plant  is  sometimes  called  the  vegetable  oyster 
because  of  its  peculiar  flavor. '  It  has  long,  white,  tapering  roots 
which  grow  best  in  a  light,  rich  soil.  Sow  the  seed  early  and  rather 
deep.  The  roots  may  be  left  in  the  ground  all  winter  if  protected 
from  frost  by  covering  them  with  a  layer  of  straw. 

Parsnips  do  well  on  deep,  rich,  sandy  soil,  but  they  will  grow  on 
nearly  any  loose,  mellow  soil.  Their  true  value  in  stock  feeding  is 
just  beginning  to  be  appreciated.  They  are  more  valuable  and 
nutritious  than  carrots  or  turnips  but  more  difficult  to  harvest. 
Parsnips  are  especially  recommended  for  dairy  stock. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Plant  seed  of  several  root  crops  and  note  the  relative  growths. 

2.  Try  various  kinds  of  soil  and  note  results  in  growth  with  the  same 
plant. 

3.  Ascertain  whether  sugar  beets  are  adapted  to  alkaline  soils. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  some  of  the  root  crops. 

2.  Describe  the  cultivation  of  beets. 

3.  Discuss  the  value  of  mangel-wurzels. 

4.  Discuss  the  turnip  family. 

5.  Describe  the  cultivation  of  radish. 

6.  For  what  kind  of  stock  is  rape  especially  recommended  ? 

7.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  carrots. 

8.  Describe  the  salsify  plant. 

9.  On  what  kind  of  soil  should  parsnips  be  planted  ? 

10.    For  what  kind  of  stock  are  parsnips  recommended  as  a  feed  ? 

REFERENCES 

The  Home  Vegetable  Garden,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  255. 

Vegetable  Gardening,  Bailey. 

The  Vegetable  Gardener,  Falconer. 

The  Sugar  Beet,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  52. 

Rape  as  a  Forage  Crop,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  164. 


XIX.     TUBER   CROPS 

Rootstocks.  — Creeping  stems  or  branches  growing  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  or  partly  covered  by  it  are  called  rootstocks. 
Tubers  may  be  regarded  as  portions  of  a  rootstock  greatly  en- 
larged and  provided  with  buds  or  eyes  on  the  sides.  The  potato 
and  the  sweet  potato  form  our  two  most  important  tuber  crops. 

The  Potato  does  best  in  a  rich,  well-drained  soil.  The  sandy  loams 
in  Colorado,  Oklahoma,  and  Ohio  seem  especially  favorable  to  its 

growth  and  devel- 
opment. In  these 
States,  under  favor- 
able circumstances, 
a  yield  of  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  bushels  to 
the  acre  is  not 

Potato  digger. 

unusual.  On  the 

market  such  potatoes  usually  bring  from  fifty  cents  to  a  dollar  a 
bushel  and  make  a  profitable  crop.  The  potatoes  are  usually 
planted  in  rows  and  generally  about  twelve  bushels  of  seed  are 
sown  to  the  acre.  For  digging  farmers  frequently  use  the  potato 
digger,  which  saves  much  time  and  labor. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  potatoes  grown  by  farmers;  the 
Early  Rose  and  the  Minnesota  Triumph  have  been  found  to  give 
excellent  results  in  the  Middle  West. 

The  potato  is  a  native  of  this  continent.  The  Spaniards  found 
the  Indians  eating  this  vegetable  wherever  they  went  in  the  valleys 
and  along  the  slopes  of  the  Andes.  Later  the  potato  was  intro- 
duced into  Virginia  by  the  Spaniards,  and  from  there  it  was  carried 
to  Ireland  by  Sir  John  Hawkins.  The  early  use  of  the  potato  by  the 
Irish  caused  it  to  be  known  as  the  Irish  potato.  At  first  it  was  used 
as  a  food  only  for  cattle  and  hogs;  but  later,  during  the  famine  pe- 
riod, it  became  an  article  of  general  food,  not  only  among  the  Irich, 

108 


TUBER   CROPS  109 

but  in  many  parts  of  Europe.  To-day  Europe  leads  the  world  in 
the  production  of  this  vegetable.  Germany  alone  produces  at  least 
one  fourth  of  the  world's  crop.  We  grow  several  hundred  million 
bushels  annually  in  the  United  States.  Our  most  productive 
States  are  New  York,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Oklahoma,  Colorado,  Utah,  and  California. 

Several  important  commercial  articles  are  now  manufactured 
from  potatoes,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  alcohol,  starch, 
glucose,  and  artificial  ivory.  . 

Jerusalem  Artichoke.  — This  is  really  a  species  of  sunflower 
which  has  been  known  and  cultivated  in  both  Europe  and  America 


Gathering  the  potato  crop. 

for  the  past  two  hundred  years.  This  species  produces  tubers 
which  look  very  much  like  potatoes.  Farmers  may  cultivate  and 
handle  this  crop  in  the  same  way  as  for  potatoes,  but  the  tubers 
are  usually  plowed  up  and  left  on  the  ground  as  feed  for  hogs. 

Chinese  Yam.  —  These  plants  have  a  food  value  similar  to  sweet 
potatoes.  They  have  large,  thick  roots  which  make  them  hard  to 
dig.  They  are  propagated  by  means  of  small  tubers.  The  Chinese 
yam  makes  a  valuable  winter  food  for  hogs. 

Chufa.  —  This  plant  produces  an  abundance  of  small  tubers  and 
grows  best  on  sandy  soils.  It  is  grown  chiefly  for  hogs. 


110  TUBER   CROPS 

Sweet  Potatoes.  —  Strictly  speaking,  the  sweet  potato  should  be 
classed  as  a  root  crop.  The  enlarged  portions  of  its  roots  are 
styled  tuberous  roots.  It  easily  adapts  itself  to  thin,  loamy 
soil  and  grows  well  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Southern  States.  The 
long-leaf  pine  soils  of  Georgia  and  Florida  seem  especially  conducive 
to  its  growth  and  flavor.  The  plants  are  grown  from  slips  usually 
obtained  from  nurserymen  or  from  the  hothouse.  These  slips  are 
set  out  in  rows  three  or  four  feet  apart.  Since  the  plants  do  not 
grow  well  in  wet  or  heavy  soil,  it  is  best  to  place  them  in  ridges. 
Sweet  potatoes  under  favorable  conditions  yield  from  two  hundred 
to  three  hundred  bushels  per  acre,  and  since  they  usually  sell  from 
75  cents  to  $1.25  per  bushel  they  make  a  profitable  crop.  Some 
farmers  regard  sweet  potatoes  as  an  excellent  stock  food,  espe- 
cially for  hogs;  but  the  scarcity  of  sweet  potatoes  and  their  high 
price  practically  bar  their  use  for  this  purpose.  The  vines  should 
always  be  cut  and  the  potatoes  dug  before  a  severe  frost  or 
freeze  comes. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  (a)  rootstocks,  (6)  tubers  ? 

2.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  potatoes. 

3.  What  States  seem  especially  adapted  to  potato  growing  ? 

4.  Calculate  the  value  of  ten  acres  of  potatoes  at  one  hundred  bushels 
to  the  acre  when  potatoes  are  worth  seventy-five  cents  per  bushel. 

5.  What  kinds  of  potatoes  are  grown  in  your  locality  ? 

6.  What  commercial  articles  are  now  manufactured  from  potatoes  ? 

7.  Describe  the  Jerusalem  artichoke. 

8.  Discuss  the  value  of  the  Chinese  yam  and  the  chufa. 

9.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  sweet  potatoes. 

REFERENCES 

Potato  Culture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  35. 

Potato  Diseases  and  their  Treatment,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  91. 

Sweet  Potatoes,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  324. 


XX.     FIBER-PRODUCING  PLANTS 

PLANTS  that  are  grown  for  their  fibers  are  usually  spoken  of  as 
fiber  plants.  There  are  two  common  sources  of  fibers,  plants  and 
animals.  Perhaps  the  simplest  test  for  distinguishing  between  the 
two  kinds  is  by  burning.  The  vegetable  fibers  burn  to  a  white 
powdery  ash,  while  the  animal  fibers  leave  a  crisp  coal.  The 
most  important  plant  fibers  are  cotton,  flax,  jute,  hemp,  ramie, 
sisal,  maguey,  and  Tampico  or  istle.  The  most  important  animal 
fibers  are  wool  and  silk. 

Cotton  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  cultivated  in  southeastern 
India  and  from  there  it  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to  Europe  by 


^  I  to  20  bales  per  square  mile 
overSO    „ 


Alexander  the  Great.  It  was  found  in  cultivation  in  Mexico,  the 
West  Indies,  Brazil,  and  Peru  at  the  time  the  western  continent 
was  discovered.  At  first  the  great  labor  and  cost  necessary  to 
remove  the  lint  from  the  seed  made  it  a  somewhat  unprofitable 
crop.  The  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  by  Eli  Whitney  in  1792 
removed  some  of  these  difficulties.  Later  improvements  in  meth- 

111 


112  FIBER-PRODUCING   PLANTS 

ods  of  handling  have  made  cotton  one  of  the  most  profitable  crops 
that  can  be  raised  in  the  South.  Although  cotton  was  originally  a 
tropical  plant,  it  makes  its  best  growth  in  temperate  climates. 
In  fact,  some  authorities  think  that  by  proper  selection  of  hardy 
cold-resistant  plants  the  time  may  come  when  the  plant  can  be 
made  to  grow  and  thrive  in  many  States  now  considered  too  far 
north  for  its  successful  culture.  In  the  United  States  cotton 
seems  to  make  its  best  growth  in  the  Gulf  States  and  the  Atlantic 
States  as  far  north  as  Virginia;  it  is  being  successfully  grown  in 
Kentucky,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  and  Oklahoma.  Cotton 
usually  makes  its  best  growth  in  medium  loams  and  well-drained 
soils. 

The  principal  varieties  of  cotton  are:  Upland,  India,  Sea  Island, 
Egyptian,  and  Peruvian  cotton.     The  Upland  and  the  Sea  Island 

are  American  grown. 

American  Upland  Cotton.  — 
This  is  the  ordinary  cotton  that 
we  find  growing  in  the  cotton 

belt  of  the  United  states-  li 

haS  a  St°Ut  Stem  ab°Ut   a 


States.  Best  of  the  world. 

The  world's  cotton  crop.  ter  °f    an  llich  tMck  alld 

one  to  five  feet  high.  The 

leaves  are  large  and  are  three  to  six  inches  long  and  two  to  five 
inches  wide.  The  leaves  of  this  variety  generally  have  five  very 
distinct  lobes. 

The  flowers  open  at  sunrise  or  just  before  and  close  late  in  the 
day,  never  to  open  again.  In  the  morning,  on  opening,  they  are 
creamy  white,  but  during  the  day  they  gradually  turn  pink.  By 
the  following  morning  the  deep  pink  portion  of  the  flower  falls 
away  and  the  young  capsule  or  boll  may  be  seen.  The  bracts 
surrounding  it  are  frequently  called  squares  by  farmers.  The 
bolls  grow  until  they  reach  the  shape  and  size  of  a  hen's  egg. 
The  lint  is  very  fine  in  texture  and  is  short,  so  that  this  va- 
riety is  commonly  known  as  short-staple  cotton.  There  has 
been  developed  a  long-staple  variety  which  is  now  grown  in 
considerable  quantities. 

India  Cotton.  —  This  plant  is  cultivated  mostly  in  southern 
Asia.  It  has  more  slender,  less  woody  stems,  with  leaves  having 


FIBER-PRODUCING  PLANTS 


113 


rounded  e'dges,  and  has  smaller  and  more  spherical  bolls  than  the 
American  variety. 

Sea  Island  Cotton.  —  Originally  this  variety  of  cotton  was  a 
native  of  the  West  Indies,  but  now  it  is  grown  on  islands  and  lands 
near  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida.  It  is  also 
grown  to  some  extent  on  the  sandy  soils  of  the  interior  portions 
of  these  States.  This  plant  grows  three  to  eight  feet  high,  has  long 
flexible  branches,  three-lobed  leaves,  and  creamy  yellow  flowers 


Picking  cotton. 

• 

instead  of  white  flowers.  The  seeds  are  free  from  fuzz  and  are 
small,  black,  and  smooth.  It  is  a  more  costly  crop  to  raise  than  the 
upland  cotton,  but  commands  a  higher  market  price  because  of 
its  greater  length  of  lint  and  fine  quality. 

Egyptian  Cotton.  —  This  plant  is  grown  on  the  irrigated  lands 
of  Egypt.  It  has  been  developed  from  Sea  Island  cotton  by  culti- 
vation and  environment.  It  seems  especially  well  adapted  for  the 
manufacture  of  yarns  and  mercerized  goods. 

Peruvian  Cotton.  —  As  the  name  indicates,  this  plant  is  a  native 

PRAC.    AGBICUL. — 8 


114  FIBER-PRODUCING   PLANTS 

of  Peru,  but  it  is  also  grown  to  some  extent  in  Brazil.  This  variety 
is  shorter  and  coarser  than  American  cotton.  The  seeds  are  similar 
to  Sea  Island  cotton,  but  cling  together  in  a  compact  cluster. 

Culture  of  Cotton.  —  The  ground  is  usually  prep'ared  for  cotton 
in  February  and  March,  and  the  seeds  are  usually  planted  in  April 
in  rows  four  feet  apart.  The  seed  is  usually  planted  by  a  one- 
horse  cotton  drill  or  by  a  corn  planter  specially  adjusted  for  cot- 
ton. The  amount  sown  varies  from  one  to  three  bushels  per  acre. 
The  sprouts  soon  come  through  the  soil,  and  the  plant  be- 
gins to  flower  by  the  middle  of  June.  Finally  the  blossoms  drop 

off  and  the  little 
bolls  of  cotton  take 
their  place.  Within 
two  months  the 
bolls  mature  and 
open.  The  plants 
continue  to  bloom, 
however,  until  Sep- 
tember. The  pick- 
ing season  extends 

Cotton  planter.  from    August    Until 

November  or  a  little  later,  and  as  the  bolls  mature  at  different 
times  about  four  pickings  are  necessary  in  order  to  gather  all 
the  crop.  The  cost  of  picking  a  bale  of  five  hundred  pounds 
is  about  six  dollars.  ,  The  cost  of  ginning  and  baling  is  about 
one  dollar,  and  usually  the  planter  must  spend  another  dollar 
or  more  for  insurance  and  storage  charges  pending  the  sale  of  his 
cotton. 

Gins.  — The  gins  now  in  universal  use  are  known  as  the  saw 
gin,  invented  by  Whitney,  and  the  roller  gin.  The  latter  has  been 
in  use  for  ages.  The  roller  gin  gives  the  most  satisfactory  results 
for  upland  cotton,  but  the  saw  gin  is  generally  considered  prefer- 
able on  account  of  its  greater  capacity.  The  seed  is  fed  into  a 
hopper  against  revolving  saws  which  remove  the  lint  and  allow 
the  seed  to  drop  through  openings  provided  for  that  purpose.  A 
revolving  cylinder  studded  with  bristles  removes  the  lint  from  the 
saws,  and  at  the  same  time  by  its  revolution  a  draft  of  air  is  created 
which  carries  off  the  lint  as  fast  as  it  is  removed  from  the  saws 


FIBER-PRODUCING   PLANTS 


115 


and  delivers  it  to  the  press.    The  ordinary  gin  usually  carries  about 
seventy  saws  and  has  a  capacity  of  a  bale  and  a  half  an  hour. 

Bales.  —  There  are  two  kinds  of  bales  in  use,  known  as  the  square 
bale  and  the  round  bale.  This  .baling  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  heavy  pressure  through  machinery  which  squeezes  or  compresses 
the  cotton  together  so  that  a  great  quantity  is  forced  into  a  space 
about  four  feet  square  and  five  feet  in  length.  It  is  then  wrapped 
in  coarse  cloth  and  bound  up  with  iron  bands  or  hoops.  The  square 


Baled  cotton. 

bale  generally  weighs  from  four  hundred  and  fifty  to  five  hundred 
pounds,  while  the  round  bale  is  usually  limited  to  two  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds.  The  former  is  extremely  unwieldy. 

Cotton  Judging.  —  In  judging  cotton  straighten  out  the  lint  and 
note  the  lengths,  and  bear  in  mind  that  the  greater  lengths  make 
the  larger  tufts.  Also  observe  whether  the  sample  is  free  from 
dirt  and  trash  and  whether  it  has  been  damaged  by  careless  ginning. 
The  sense  of  touch  may  also  be  brought  into  requisition  to  good 
advantage.  Unfortunately  we  have  no  well-defined  standards  for 


116 


FIBER-PRODUCING   PLANTS 


grading  cotton,  and  many  of  our  expert  cotton  buyers  seem  to  be 
unable  to  give  good  reasons  for  their  judgment.  The  principal 
grades  usually  recognized  are  as  follows:  fair,  middling  fair,  good 
middling,  middling,  low  middling,  good  ordinary,  and  ordinary. 
All  grades  above  the  middling  grade  are  designated  as  full  grades. 
The  price  per  pound  may  vary  from  five  to  fifteen  cents  or  higher 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  grade  of  the  cotton. 

Cotton  Products.  —  Some  of  the  valuable  products  of  cotton  are 
the  lint,  the  seed,  oil,  oil  cake,  cotton-seed  meal,  and  hulls.     A 

ton  of  seed  will  yield  forty 
pounds  of  lint,  eight  hundred 
pounds  of  hulls,  eight  hun- 
dred pounds  of  meal,  and 
forty  gallons  of  oil.  From 
the  lint  is  made  cotton  cloth 
and  thread. 

Flax.  —  Flax  has  been  cul- 
tivated from  the  very  earli- 
est times,  and  it  is  said 
that  the  ancient  Hebrews 
and  Egyptians  wore  clothing 
made  from  its  fiber.  The 
variety  generally  used  in 
this  country  is  derived  from 
a  small  annual  plant  that  is 
found  in  some  of  the  places 
bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  Belgium  and 
Russia  raise  vast  quantities 
of  flax  in  the  Old  World,  while 
the  United  States  and  Argen- 
tina lead  all  countries  in  its 
production  on  this  continent. 

Flax  plant.  The  principal  flax-producing 

States  incur  own  country  are  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Minne- 
sota, Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Washington.  Flax  will  usually 
grow  where  wheat  will  grow  successfully,  but  it  thrives  best  in 
cool,  moist  climates  and  on  well-tilled  sandy  loams. 


FIBER-PRODUCING   PLANTS  117 

Description  of  the  Plant.  —  Flax  is  an  annual  which  grows  to  a 
height  of  two  to  four  feet,  and  it  bears  on  the  end  of  its  branches 
clusters  of  pretty  blue  or  white  flowers.  It  has  a  threadlike 
taproot  to  which  are  attached  a  few  tender  lateral  branches.  The 
seeds  are  small  and  have  a  bright  polished  surface,  and  vary  in 
color  from  yellow  to  a  light  or  dark  brown.  The  culture  of  flax 
when  grown  for  seed  is  similar  to  that  of  spring  wheat,  and  two  to 
four  pecks  of  seed  are  required  to  the  acre.  When  grown  for  seed 
only,  the  crop  may  be  harvested  with  a  self  binder,  shocked,  and 
thrashed  with  an  ordinary  thrashing  machine;  but  when  grown 
for  fiber  the  crop  must  be  pulled  by  hand.  This  is  necessary  for 
the  following  reasons:  (1)  to  secure  straw  of  full  and  even  length; 
(2)  to  avoid  stain  and  injury  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  straw, 
which  would  occur  if  it  were  cut  and  shocked  like  wheat;  (3)  to 
insure  better  curing  of  the  straw;  (4)  to  avoid  the  blunt  cut  ends 
of  the  fiber  which  results  when  the  stalk  is  cut. 

Uses.  —  Large  quantities  of  flax  are  raised  for  seed,  which  often 
sells  for  a  dollar  a  bushel.  From  the  seed  is  obtained  an  oil  which 
is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  paint,  varnish,  and 
printer's  ink.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  oilcloth,  lino- 
leum, artificial  rubber,  and  soap.  The  plant  furnishes  two  forms 
of  commercial  fiber  that  are  of  value.  One  is  the  straight,  long 
lint  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fabrics ;  and  the  other  is 
the  short,  tangled  fiber  called  tow,  used  for  seaming  joints  and 
calking  boats,  for  upholstering,  and  for  making  bagging,  paper,  and 
twine.  The  finer  and  longer  fiber  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
laces,  fine  linens,  dress  goods,  crash  and  towel  goods,  and  thread. 
Other  valuable  products  are  the  hulls  and  linseed  meal  which  re- 
main after  the  oil  has  been  extracted  from  the  seed.  From  these 
a  kind  of  oil  cake  is  prepared  which  forms  a  valuable  stock  food. 

Grading.  — The  usual  legal  weight  of  flaxseed  in  the  United 
States  is  fifty-six  pounds  to  the  bushel.  The  standard  for  market- 
ing purposes  is  No.  1  Northern  grade,  which  must  weigh  fifty-one 
pounds  or  more  per  bushel  and  must  not  contain  more  than  one 
eighth  damaged  seeds.  Our  annual  production  is  over  twenty-five 
million  bushels. 

Hemp.  —  This  plant  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  has  been  cultivated 
in  China  from  very  early  times.  It  is  a  rough,  sturdy  annual,  grow- 


118 


FIBER-PRODUCING    PLANTS 


ing  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  in  height,  which  thrives  best  on  most 
fertile  soils  in  temperate  climates.  It  can  be  grown  successfully 
throughout  the  corn  belt  of  the  United  States,  but  is  grown 
chiefly  in  the  blue  grass  regions  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

Uses.  —  Hemp  is  grown  in  this  country  chiefly  for  its  fiber 
which  we  use  for  cordage  and  warp  for  carpets,  and  also  for  mak- 
ing sailcloth.  In  some  of  the  old  countries  hemp  is  largely  grown 
for  its  rich  oily  seed. 

Jute.  —  Jute  resembles  hemp  and  may  be  successfully  grown  on 
rich  alluvial  soils  of  the  cotton  belt,  but  it  is  principally  grown 
in  Bengal,  India,  and  in  China.  It  is  used  as  coverings  for  cotton 
bales,  and  for  making  bagging,  twine,  and  carpets. 

Ramie.  —  This  is  a  perennial  shrub  which  somewhat  resembles 
hemp  in  its  appearance  and  growth.  It  grows  well  in  the  Gulf 
States,  but  the  world's  chief  supply  is  grown  in  China,  Japan,  and 
the  Malay  Archipelago.  It  is  used  for  making  coarse  fabrics  and 
cordage. 

Manila  Fiber.  — This  plant  resembles  the  banana  plant;  it  grows 
in  the  Philippine  Islands  and  is  propagated  from  suckers  or  seeds 

set  in  hills  nine  to 
twelve  feet  apart 
It  grows  to  a  height 
of  eight  to  twenty 
feet  and  requires  no 
cultivation.  The 
yield  varies  from 
two  hundred  and 
fifty  to  five  hun- 
dred pounds  of  fiber 
to  the  acre.  The 
fiber  is  used  for 
Ma?uey  plant  making  hawsers, 

ship  cables,  hoisting  ropes,  and  for  the  best  grade  of  binder  twine. 
Sisal,  or  henequen,  is  a  tropical  fiber  plant  growing  on  barren 
rocky  land  unfit  for  other  agricultural  purposes  in  Yucatan, 
the  West  Indies,  and  Hawaii.  Its  heavy,  coarse  leaves  furnish 
yellowish  white  fibers  used  principally  for  making  binder  twine, 
cordage,  coarse  floor  matting,  and  door  mats. 


FIBER-PRODUCING   PLANTS  119 

Maguey.  — The  maguey  plant  is  closely  related  to  the  sisal 
plant  and  is  very  similar  to  it.  It  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  but 
it  is  now  grown  in  the  Philippine  Islands  and  in  a  few  other 
tropical  climates.  Maguey  is  cheaper  than  sisal  and  can  be  used 
for  the  same  purposes. 

Tampico  Fiber,  or  Istle.  —  This  plant  grows  wild  on  the  arid 
mesas  or  table-lands  of  New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  Old  Mexico. 
It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes  and  cheap  grades  of  twine. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Ascertain  from  the  market  quotations  in  the  paper  the  price  of  cotton 
and  calculate  the  worth  of  a  crop  averaging  one  fourth  of  a  bale  to  the  acre, 
in  a  field  of  forty  acres. 

2.  If  you  live  in  the  cotton  belt,  talk  with  a  cotton  buyer  and  get  his 
ideas  in  reference  to  buying  and  selling  cotton. 

3.  If  no  cotton  is  grown  in  your  locality,  correspond  with  schools  in  some  of 
the  cotton-growing  States  and  get  them  to  make  reports  to  you  in  return  for 
reports  on  products  grown  in  your  State. 

4.  Which  is  the  most  valuable,  a  crop  of  forty  acres  of  corn  or  forty  acres 
of  cotton  ?     Why  ? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  some  of  the  leading  plant  fiber  crops. 

2.  Give  a  brief  history  of  cotton. 

3.  Name  the  principal  varieties  of  cotton. 

4.  Discuss  the  American  Upland  cotton. 

5.  Describe  (a)  India  cotton,  (6)  Sea  Island  cotton. 

6.  Discuss  Egyptian  cotton  and  Peruvian  cotton. 

7.  Discuss  the  culture  of  cotton. 

8.  Name  and  describe  the  different  kinds  of  cotton  gins. 

9.  Discuss  cotton  judging. 

10.  Name  some  of  the  products  of  cotton. 

11.  Give  a  brief  history  of  the  flax  plant. 

12.  Explain  the  method  of  grading  flax. 

13.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  hemp  and  jute. 

14.  Describe  (a)  ramie,  (6)  manila  fiber,  (c)  sisal. 

15.  Discuss  (a)  the  maguey  plant,  (6)  Tampico  fiber  or  istle. 

16.  How  many  kinds  of  fibers  can  you  find  about  home  ? 

17.  Bring  samples  of  cloth,  rope,  carpet,  matting,  etc.,  and  try  to  find  out 
what  kind  of  fiber  is  used  in  each. 

REFERENCES 

Flax  Culture,  Orange  Judd  Co.  Hemp,  S.  S.  Boyce.  The  Story  of  the  Cotton 
Plant,  F.  Wilkinson.  Cotton  and  Cotton  Oil,  D.  A.  Tomkins.  Cyclo- 
pedia of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey. 


XXI.     ANIMAL  FIBERS 


THE  principal  animal  fibers,  silk  and  wool,  are  of  such  great  im- 
portance that  some  mention  must  be  made  of  them  in  connection 
with  our  study  of  sources  of  fibers.  The  value  of  the  silk  manu- 
factured annually  in  this  country  is  about  $125,000,000  and  that 
of  woolen  manufactures  is  about  $400,000,000. 

Silk.  —  Our  supply  of  silk  in  the  raw  or  unfinished  state  comes 
from  France,  Italy,  Japan,  and  China.  The  raw  silk  is  derived 

from  the  cocoon  of 
the  silkworm  which 
feeds  on  the  leaves 
of  the  mulberry  tree. 
Any  one  who  has 
seen  the  American 
silkworm  moth  and 
its  larva  will  have  a 
fair  idea  of  the  Chi- 
nese silkworm,  but 
the  latter  is  more  delicate  and  requires  very  careful  handling. 
The  American  silkworm  may  be  found  during  part  of  the  summer 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  the  oak  or  elm,  but  unlike  the 
Chinese  silkworm  it  has  no  commercial  value. 

The  Chinese  silkworms  are  produced  from  tiny  eggs  about  the 
size  of  a  mustard  seed  and  are  of  a  pale  ash  color.  These  eggs 
are  laid  by  female  silk  moths,  each  moth  laying,  usually  in  June, 
three  to  five  hundred  eggs.  During  the  hatching  season,  the 
following  April,  these  eggs  are  kept  in  a  room  of  a  warm,  even 
temperature.  The  eggs  hatch  into  little  black  threadlike  worms 
which  require  constant  attention  on  the  part  of  their  owners.  For 
the  first  few  days  mulberry  leaves  are  cut  up  into  small  pieces  and 
fed  to  the  silkworms  every  half  hour  both  day  and  night.  This  pe- 
riod is  gradually  extended  to  an  hour,  and  finally  when  they  have 

120 


American  silkworm  moth  (Polyphemus). 


ANIMAL  FIBERS 


121 


American  silkworm. 


reached  their  full  growth  they  eat  only  three  or  four  times  a  day. 
When  the  worm  is  thirty-two  days  old,  it  is  about  two  inches  long 
and  a  little  larger  than  a  common  lead  pencil.  At  this  time  it 
stops  feeding  entirely  and  begins  to  spin  the  silk  fiber  from  its 
mouth,  which  it  continues  until 
its  whole  body  is  completely 
encased.  This  process  requires 
from  two  to  five  days.  Then 
the  worms  are  placed  over  a 
slow  fire  of  charcoal  or  wood 
and  are  killed  by  heating.  Next 

the  cocoons  are  placed  in  boiling  water  in  order  to  soften  the 
gummy  substance  which  holds  the  threads  together.  Then  the 
silk  is  unwound  from  the  cocoons  and  reeled  into  skeins  ready 
for  shipping.  When  the  silk  reaches  the  manufacturer  in  this 
country,  it  is  put  through  a  process  of  twisting  or  spinning  called 

throwing.  When  this  process  is 
completed,  the  silk  is  ready  for 
weaving  and  the  loom.  The 
United  States  consumes  about 
one  third  of  all  the  raw  silk  pro- 
duced in  the  world.  Nearly  all 
of  our  large  silk  mills  are  in 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  and 
Pennsylvania,  but  smaller 
plants  are  found  in  nineteen 
different  States. 

Products.  — Our  various  silk 
and  satin  goods,  ribbons,  and 
Chinese  silkworms.  thread  are  the  most  important 

products  of  silk  fiber. 

Woolen  Fibers.  —  The  best  grade  of  wool  fiber  is  furnished  by 
the  wool  of  merino  sheep,  a  species  brought  to  this  country  from 
Spain.  It  is  estimated  that  three  fourths  of  the  sheep  of  the 
United  States  are  of  pure  or  mixed  merino  descent.  In  fineness  of 
fleece  and  length  of  fiber  it  is  excelled  by  no  other  breed  in  this 
country.  About  five  hundred  million  pounds  of  wool  is  required 
annually  for  manufacturing  purposes,  and  of  this  amount  about 


122  ANIMAL   FIBERS 

two  fifths  is  imported  from  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Argentina, 
and  South  Africa. 

When  the  wool  has  reached  a  sufficient  length  and  the  season 
of  the  year  is  favorable,  the  sheep  are  caught  and  sheared.  In  some 
cases  this  is  done  by  hand  and  at  a  cost  of  five  cents  per  head,  but 
in  Australia  and  places  where  immense  herds  of  sheep  are  main- 
tained this  work  is  done  by  machinery.  After  the  shearing  the 


Shearing  sheep,  Wyoming. 

wool  is  sorted  and  packed  in  bales  for  storage  in  the  warehouse 
and  subsequent  shipment. 

Grades  of  Wool.  —  Wools  are  classified  on  the  basis  of  their 
length  and  strength,  as:  (1)  clothing  wools,  comprising  short,  fine 
wool  suitable  for  making  high-grade  woolen  cloth;  (2)  combing 
wools,  which  are  strong,  over  three  inches  long,  used  for  worsted 
goods;  and  (3)  delaine  wools,  which  are  fine,  strong  wools,  two  to 
three  inches  long,  desirable  for  making  delaine  cloth. 

Products.  —  The  products  of  the  woolen  mills  may  be  divided  as 
follows:  (1)  wool  goods  for  men's  suitings  and  dress  goods  for 
ladies;  (2)  articles  produced  by  worsted  mills,  including  merinos, 
serges,  hosiery,  knit  goods,  etc.;  (3)  articles  produced  by  carpet 
mills,  such  as  rugs,  carpets,  etc.;  (4)  articles  produced  by  felt  mills, 
such  as  felted  wool  used  for  floor  coverings,  for  making  hats,  and 
for  other  purposes. 

Other  Animal  Fibers.  —  The  hair  of  the  Angora  goat  furnishes 
a  fiber  from  which  a  fine  grade  of  mohair  goods  is  obtained.  A 


ANIMAL   FIBERS  123 

great  deal  of  mohair  is  exported  from  Cape  Colony  in  South  Africa. 
From  the  Cashmere  goat  is  obtained  the  fiber  from  which  the 
famous  Cashmere  shawls  are  made.  Alpaca,  vicuna,  and  camel's 
hair  cloth  should  also  be  added  to  this  list.  The  llama  of  South 
America  produces  a  wool  fiber  for  which  the  animal  is  highly 
valued,  although  ordinarily  it  is  used  simply  as  a  beast  of  burden. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  principal  animal  fibers. 

2.  What  can  you  say  of  the  value  of  silk  and  woolen  manufactures  in 
the  United  States  ? 

3.  From  what  places  docs  our  supply  of  raw  silk  come  ? 

4.  Discuss  the  care  of  the  silkworms. 

5.  Name  some  of  the  important  products  made  from  silk. 

6.  Discuss  woolen  fibers.     How  are  they  graded  ? 

7.  Name  some  important  woolen  products. 

8.  About  how  much  wool  is  required  each  year  for  manufacturing 
purposes  ? 

9.  Name  the  centers  of  the  woolen  industries. 

10.  Name  some  other  important  animal  fibers. 

11.  If  you  have  seen  a  sheep  sheared,  tell  how  the  wool  looked  and  how  it 
was  handled.     When  was  the  wool  clipped  ?     Why  at  this  time  of  the  year  ? 

REFERENCES 

How  the  World  is  Clothed  (Industrial  Reader),  Carpenter. 
Commercial  Geography,  Gannett,  Garrison,  and  Houston. 
Silk  Culture,  Mrs.  C.  E.  Bamford. 


XXII.    ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

FARMERS  have  learned  by  experience  that  it  is  not  wise  to  attempt 
to  grow  the  same  crop  year  after  year  in  the  same  field  without 
change,  and  they  have  also  learned  that  certain  crops  must  follow 
each  other  in  a  certain  order  to  secure  the  best  results.  Thus  the 
farmer  may  plant  corn  the  first  year,  potatoes  the  second  year, 
wheat  the  third  year,  and  clover  the  fourth  year.  This  change  of 
crops  in  regular  order  and  according  to  fixed  principles  we  call 
rotation  of  crops.  During  the  fifth  year,  the  farmer  may,  if  he 
chooses,  repeat  the  crop  raised  during  the  first  year  and  obtain 
good  results.  In  some  of  the  States  of  the  Middle  West  farmers 
follow  their  corn  crop  with  wheat  or  oats  and  this  with  clover. 
The  latter  is  frequently  sowed  with  the  wheat,  and  it  makes  its 
growth  after  the  wheat  is  cut  and  harvested.  The  clover  crop  is 
usually  permitted  to  grow  two  years  or  more  before  a  change  is 
made.  Generally  speaking,  we  may  say  that  at  least  four  crops 
should  be  included  in  our  scheme  of  rotation  in  order  to  secure  the 
best  yield  possible. 

Evils  of  the  One-crop  System.  —  Many  farmers  in  the  corn 
belt  region  of  the  United  States  raise  nothing  but  corn  year  after 
year,  and  the  yield  diminishes  with  each  successive  crop  until 
finally  there  is  scarcely  enough  realized  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  pro- 
duction. Many  farmers  in  the  Gulf  States  make  the  same  mistake 
in  attempting  to  raise  nothing  but  cotton.  The  feed  for  their 
teams  and  the  food  needed  for  themselves,  which  might  be  easily 
raised  on  the  farm,  is  bought  in  the  market.  Under  such  a  policy 
it  is  not  surprising  that  such  farmers  are  frequently  compelled  to 
place  a  mortgage  on  their  growing  crop,  on  their  teams,  and  on  all 
their  farming  implements  in  order  to  secure  the  provisions  they 
need  while  the  crop  is  being  made.  Should  this  particular  crop 
be  a  failure,  the  farmer  would  not  only  lose  all  of  his  labor  and  time, 
but  all  of  his  working  capital.  The  man  who  attempts  to  raise  only 

124 


ROTATION   OF  CROPS  125 

one  kind  of  crop  year  after  year  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  is  doomed 
to  disappointment  and  ruin.  Farmers  would  fare  much  better  if 
they  would  attempt  to  raise  two  or  three  kinds  of  crops  every  year, 
so  that  if  one  crop  should  be  a  failure  the  loss  would  be  made  more 
than  good  by  the  other  successful  crops.  A  few  years  ago  it  was 
supposed  that  nothing  but  wheat  could  be  successfully  grown  in 
northwestern  Oklahoma,  but  to-day  it  is  not  an  uncommon  sight 
to  see  wheat,  cotton,  and  corn  all  growing  side  by  side  in  this 
same  section  of  country.  These  same  farmers  have  also  learned 
that  it  pays  them  to  raise  their  vegetables  and  to  raise  their  own 
hogs  instead  of  buying  these  from  time  to  time.  This  mingling 
of  crops  on  the  farm  is  called  diversified  farming,  and  too  much 
cannot  be  said  in  its  praise.  The  hope  of  the  future  lies  in  diver- 
sified farming. 

Rules  of  Rotation.  —  No  special  rules  can  belaid  down  for  the 
rotation  of  crops,  but  in  general  we  should  select  such  crops  as 
will  be  the  most  profitable  to  the  farmer  and  most  beneficial  to 
the  soil. 

So  far  as  the  farmer's  profit  is  concerned,  crops  should  follow 
each  other  in  such  a  way  that  he  will  have  a  paying  crop  every 
year.  If  two  or  three  kinds  of  crops  are  raised  each  year  that 
mature  at  different  seasons,  the  demands  on  the  farmer's  time  and 
work  will  be  distributed,  and  his  income  will  be  distributed  through 
the  year  in  such  a  way  that  he  will  have  money  on  hand  at  all 
times  to  meet  his  expenses  as  fast  as  they  are  incurred. 

A  second  point  that  we  should  consider  in  our  selection  of  crops 
is  the  enrichment  of  the  soil  with  nitrogen.  If  possible,  grow  crops 
that  secure  most  of  their  nitrogen  from  the  air.  This,  we  have 
already  learned,  may  be  done  by  growing  legumes  such  as  alfalfa, 
cowpeas,  and  clover. 

Again,  crops  should  rotate  in  such  a  way  that  plants  having 
shallow  roots  will  be  followed  by  plants  with  deep  and  heavy 
roots,  so  that  the  unused  nourishment  in  the  lower  layers  of 
soil  may  be  absorbed  by  the  roots  and  made  available.  Thus 
crops  of  wheat  and  oats  may  be  followed  by  clover  to  good 
advantage. 

Another  point  to  be  considered  is  what  crop  will  make  the  best 
use  of  that  portion  of  the  preceding  crop  that  is  left  on  the  ground. 


126  ROTATION   OF   CROPS 

Farmers  have  learned  by  experience  that  wheat  may  profitably 
follow  a  crop  of  tobacco. 

Our  crops  should  also  rotate  in  such  a  way  that  an  abundance 
of  feed  will  be  furnished  for  live  stock  at  all  times,  so  that  the 
farmer  will  not  be  under  the  necessity  of  buying  any  kind  of  feed 
for  his  stock. 

A  change  of  crops  is  likewise  found  necessary  in  order  to  keep 
down  the  spread  of  weeds,  plant  diseases,  and  insect  pests.  Some 
insects  thrive  on  certain  plants  and  disappear  when  these  plants 
are  not  grown. 

Advantages  of  Rotation.  —  Summing  up  briefly,  we  may  say 
that  the  advantages  of  rotation  of  crops  are  as  follows: 

1.  It  retards  soil  exhaustion  and  prolongs  the  period  of  profit- 
able culture. 

2.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  is  improved  by  the  continuous  growth 
of  crops  properly  grouped.     When  left  lying  idle,  soils  grow  up  to 
weeds  or  are  damaged  by  washing. 

3.  A  change  of  crops  deprives  insects  of  their  special  kind  of 
food  and  results  in  their  removal  or  death. 

4.  Weed  pests  which  accompany  certain  crops  may  be  eradicated 
by  proper  selection  of  crops.     Thus  the  dodder  plant  appears 
as  a  pest  in  alfalfa  and  the  so-called  red  rice  frequently  appears 
as  an  enemy  of  the  common  rice  plant. 

5.  The  growth  of  legumes  in  our  scheme  of  rotation  increases  the 
soil's  store  of  nitrogen. 

6.  Rotation  gives  a  better  distribution  of  labor  and  affords 
continuous  work  for  the  farmer  and  his  teams. 

7.  A  rotation  which  enables  the  farmer  to  market  his  crops  at 
different  periods  affords  a  better  distribution  of  his  income  and 
enables  him  to  meet  his  obligations  as  fast  as  they  mature. 

Examples  of  Rotation.  —  A  great  many  combinations  of  crops 
are  possible,  but  nearly  all  of  them  run  for  three,  four,  or  five  years. 
Some  of  those  in  common  use  are  as  follows: 

1.    Five-year  Rotation 

IST  YEAR      2o  YEAB         3D  YEAR      4xn  YEAR       5rn  YEAR 

Tobacco          Wheat  Wheat  Clover  Clover 

Corn  Oats  Wheat          Clover  Clover 


ROTATION   OF  CROPS 


127 


2.    Four-year  Rotation 


IST  YEAH 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Corn 

Potatoes 

Cowpeas 

Rye 

Grass 


2D  YEAR 

3D  YEAR 

4rn  YEAR 

Wheat 

Clover 

Clover 

Oats 

Wheat 

Clover 

Potatoes 

Wheat 

Clover  or  Alfalfa 

Potatoes 

Clover 

Clover 

Wheat 

Clover 

Clover 

Cowpeas 

Cotton 

Wheat 

Soy  Beans 

Winter  Wheat 

Clover 

Corn 

Potatoes 

Oats 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  have  farmers  learned  about  growing  the  same  crop  year  after 
year? 

2.  Discuss  the  evils  of  the  one-crop  system. 

3.  What  can  you  say  of  rules  for  rotation  of  crops  ? 

4.  Discuss  the  advantages  of  rotation. 

5.  Give  examples  of  (a)  a  five-year  rotation,  (6)  a  four-year  rotation. 

6.  Give  a  list  of  the  rotations  practiced  in  your  neighborhood. 


REFERENCES 

Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo,  Thomas  Shaw. 
Practices  in  Crop  Rotation,  Year  Book,  1902. 
The  Fertility  of  the  Land,  J.  P.  Roberts. 
Fertilizers,  Voorhees. 

Soils  and  Crops  of  the  Farm,  Morton  and  Hunt. 
The  Science  of  Agriculture,  Lloyd. 


XXIII.     FERTILIZERS 

EACH  crop  secures  the  necessary  elements  for  its  growth  from  the 
air  and  the  soil.  Each  year  certain  minerals  are  removed  from  the 
soil,  and  it  is  evident  that  in  course  of  time  the  supply  of  necessary 
minerals  will  become  exhausted  if  not  replenished  by  some  means. 
This  takes  place  when  we  grow  year  after  year  some  crop  that 
draws  and  requires  a  large  supply  of  a  certain  mineral  element 
from  the  soil.  To  remedy  the  evil  the  farmer  must  either  grow  a 
new  crop  that  draws  on  a  different  element  of  the  soil,  or  he  must 
strengthen  the  soil  by  applying  to  it  some  substance  that  will 
supply  the  missing  element. 

Fertilizers  Defined.  —  Anything  that  we  may  apply  to  a  soil 
to  make  it  more  fertile  or  productive  is  a  fertilizer.  Fertilizers 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  (1)  natural  fertilizers,  and 
(2)  commercial  fertilizers. 

Natural  Fertilizers.  —  In  this  class  we  may  include  those  which 
occur  in  nature  and  may  be  applied  with  or  without  special  treat- 
ment to  make  them  useful  as  fertilizers,  and  those  which  are  by- 
products of  manufacture  or  farm  operations.  They  are  lime,  marl, 
gypsum,  gas  lime,  salt,  wood  ashes,  leather  meal,  felt  waste,  hair 
waste,  swamp  muck,  peat,  leaves,  straw,  and  barnyard  or  stable 
manure." 

Lime  and  Gas  Lime.  —  Lime  (calcium  oxide)  is  a  compound  of 
calcium  and  oxygen.  It  is  produced  by  burning  common  limestone. 
Lime  is  an  essential  food  of  the  plant,  and  it  exercises  a  beneficial 
effect  on  the  soil  by  overcoming  and  neutralizing  any  acids  present. 
In  many  parts  of  Alaska  so  much  acid  is  present  in  the  soils  that 
crops  cannot  be  grown  with  success  until  enough  lime  has  been 
added  to  counteract  the  sourness.  The  judicious  use  of  lime 
liberates  unavailable  plant  food,  eradicates  diseases,  and  improves 
the  texture  of  the  soil.  Gas  lime  contains  a  great  deal  of  sulphur 
in  the  form  of  sulphides  which  are  somewhat  injurious  to  plant 
life  and  should  be  applied  to  the  soil  in  sparing  quantities  long 
before  the  planting  of  the  crop. 

128 


FERTILIZERS  129 

Salt  facilitates  the  absorbing  power  of  soils,  reacts  with  lime, 
and  serves  as  a  solvent  for  phosphates. 

Gypsum  (calcium  sulphate)  is  a  compound  of  calcium,  sulphur, 
and  oxygen.  When  burned,  it  forms  a  white  powder  known  as 
plaster  of  Paris.  When  reduced  to  powder  by  grinding,  it  is 
known  as  ground  gypsum.  It  furnishes  lime  to  the  soil  and 
increases  its  solvent  power.  In  the  Eastern  States  large  quantities 
of  gypsum  are  used  in  fertilizing  clover  fields.  Large  beds  of 
gypsum  are  found  in  western  Oklahoma,  New  York,  and  Nova 
Scotia. 

Marl  is  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  with  varying  proportions  of 
lime,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  A  great  deal  of  this  kind  of 
soil  is  found  in  New  Jersey  and  Virginia.  Marl  is  a  valuable 
addition  to  soils  on  account  of  its  mineral  constituents  and  their 
mechanical  effect  upon  the  soil.  Both  ground  marl  and  gypsum 
may  be  applied  to  the  soil  by  a  drilling  machine  specially  adjusted 
for  the  purpose  or  by  a  manure  spreader. 

Wood  Ashes.  —  In  timbered  countries  unleached  wood  ashes 
form  a  cheap  and  valuable  fertilizer.  They  contain  much  mineral 
matter  necessary  for  plant  food,  especially  lime  and  potash.  Both 
of  these  elements  exist  in  wood  ashes  in  such  a  form  as  to  be 
readily  available  to  the  plant,  and  at  the  same  time  the  ashes 
exercise  a  beneficial  mechanical  effect  on  the  soil  by  making  it 
mealy  and  easy  to  cultivate. 

Leather  Meal  is  the  waste  product  from  leather  factories  where 
shoes  and  other  leather  goods  are  manufactured  on  a  large  scale. 
Its  most  valuable  constituent  is  nitrogen,  and  it  is  a  good  fertilizer 
for  pastures  and  meadows. 

Felt  Waste  is  one  of  the  by-products  in  factories  where  felt  goods 
are  manufactured.  Its  most  valuable  constituent  is  nitrogen. 

Hair  Waste.  —  This  product  may  be  obtained  in  very  large 
quantities  in  cities  where  the  original  materials  are  utilized  for 
manufacturing  purposes  and  the  hair  remains  as  a  waste  product. 
In  the  cities  where  the  large  packing  houses  are  located  hair  waste 
may  frequently  be  purchased  as  low  as  two  or  three  dollars  a  ton. 
It  contains  nitrogen  and  is  a  valuable  fertilizer  for  orchards  and 
pastures. 

Muck  and  Peat.  —  In  low  wet  places  there  frequently  accumu- 

PRAC.    AGRICUL. — 9 


130  FERTILIZERS 

late  large  quantities  of  partially  decayed  vegetable  matter 
which  is  called  muck  or  peat  according  to  its  consistency.  In 
Florida  and  the  Gulf  States  large  quantities  of  this  material  are 
found  in  the  hummocks  or  low  bottom  lands  near  the  lake  and 
river  regions.  Vast  beds  of  it  are  also  found  in  Alaska,  where  it  is 
so  rich  in  vegetable  matter  that  it  is  frequently  cut  up  into  blocks, 
dried,  and  burned  as  fuel. 

Muck  is  rich  in  organic  matter  and  contains  about  .3  per  cent 
of  nitrogen,  besides  showing  traces  of  lime,  potash,  and  phos- 
phoric acid.  Onions,  celery,  and  potatoes  make  fine  crops  in  muck 
lands  that  have  been  well  drained. 

Leaves  and  Straw  are  chiefly  valuable  for  the  organic  matter  that 
they  supply  to  the  soil.  Farmers  frequently  make  a  great  mis- 
take when  they  set  fire  to  their  straw  stacks  and  burn  them  up. 
The  straw  makes  good  forage  for  live  stock  in  winter;  and  the 
following  spring,  if  scattered  over  the  soil,  the  straw  makes  a  cheap 
and  valuable  fertilizer. 

Barnyard  Manure  is  somewhat  different  from  stable  manure 
and  should  not  be  confused  with  that  product.  It  is  the  manure 
found  in  feed  lots  where  live  stock  is  fed,  and  consists  of  the 
droppings  of  the  stock  mixed  with  the  loose  portions  of  the  soil 
and  with  waste  portions  of  hay  or  straw  given  the  stock  for  rough 
feed  and  for  beddings. 

Stable  Manure  accumulates  in  stables  where  animals  are  kept 
and  fed.  In  many  stables  the  manure  is  allowed  to  accumulate, 
and  dry  straw  for  bedding  is  added  from  day  to  day  as  may  be 
needed.  It  is  more  valuable  than  barnyard  manure  because  its 
valuable  constituents  are  not  leached  out  and  washed  away  by 
rains.  When  removed  from  the  stable  it  should  be  placed  in 
covered  pens  where  it  will  be  protected  from  the  weather.  A 
ton  of  manure  consists  of  75  per  cent  of  water  and  25  per  cent  of 
solid  material.  In  the  latter  will  be  found  from  10  to  12  per  cent  of 
ash  and  from  12  to  15  per  cent  of  organic  matter.  There  will  be 
usually  found  present  ten  pounds  or  less  each  of  phosphoric  acid 
and  lime,  eight  to  ten  pounds  of  nitrogen,  and  from  six  to  eight 
pounds  of  potash.  In  order  to  prevent  the  loss  of  ammonia 
and  nitrogen  it  is  frequently  found  advisable  to  sprinkle  the 
manure  with  gypsum. 


FERTILIZERS  131 

Manure,  in  addition  to  supplying  the  much-needed  plant  ele- 
ments to  the  soil,  improves  the  condition  of  the  soil  in  many  ways. 
It  binds  together  particles  of  sandy  soil,  makes  dry  soils  more 
mellow  or  porous,  and  conserves  the  soil  moisture  for  the  use  of 
plants. 

Composts  are  formed  by  building  up  alternate  layers  of  manure 
and  of  weeds,  marl,  leaves,  etc.  The  various  layers  of  material 
are  thoroughly  moistened  with  water  as  they  are  built  up.  The 
heap  is  finally  rounded  off  into  a  cone-shaped  pyramid  and  is 
covered  with  a  layer  of  dry  soil  to  absorb  and  retain  all  gases  that 
are  formed.  Whenever  possible  the  compost  heap  should  be 
opened  up  occasionally  and  sufficient  water  added  to  make  the 
whole  mass  thoroughly  moist.  This  will  check  the  destructive 
fermentation  and  will  facilitate  the  formation  of  nitrates. 

Commercial  Fertilizers.  —  When  the  soil  is  kept  in  constant 
cultivation  and  the  crops  are  sold  year  after  year,  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  plant  food  become  exhausted,  and  frequently  not  enough 
manure  is  produced  on  the  farm  to  supply  the  deficiency;  farmers 
are  then  compelled  to  resort  to  special  or  commercial  fertilizers. 
These  consist  of  compounds  manufactured  expressly  for  use  on 
soils,  and  they  contain  plant  food  in  a  form  more  highly  concen- 
trated and  more  readily  available  than  that  found  in  stable  or 
barnyard  manure. 

Classes  of  Commercial  Fertilizers.  —  All  special  or  commercial 
fertilizers  fall  naturally  into  three  classes: 

1.  Nitrogenous  fertilizers,  or  those  furnishing  nitrogen.  2.  Po- 
tassic  fertilizers,  or  those  furnishing  potash.  3.  Phosphatic  fer- 
tilizers, or  those  furnishing  phosphorus. 

Hints  on  Fertilizers.  —  A  reckless  and  indiscriminate  use  of 
fertilizers  is  never  profitable.  The  farmer  must  know  what  ele- 
ments are  needed  for  the  successful  growth  of  a  crop  and  the 
amount  that  should  be  applied  in  each  case.  Good  tillage,  proper 
rotation  of  crops,  and  a  judicious  use  of  natural  manures  or  fer- 
tilizers will  ordinarily  insure  successful  crops.  But  it  is  frequently 
advisable  to  supplement  the  natural  manures  with  concentrated 
commercial  fertilizers  that  have  been  found  beneficial  to  that  par- 
ticular crop  the  farmer  is  trying  to  grow. 

Nitrogenous   Fertilizers.  —  Since    nitrogen   is  the  basis  of  the 


132  FERTILIZERS 

albuminoids  of  plants,  the  casein  of  milk,  and  the  fibrin  of  the 
blood,  it  is  essential  to  both  animal  and  vegetable  life.  It  is  found 
in  fertilizers  in  three  forms:  (1)  in  the  form  of  a  nitrate;  (2)  in  the 
form  of  ammonia;  (3)  in  the  form  found  in  organic  matter. 

Nitrates.  —  The  most  common  nitrates  are  nitrates  of  soda, 
potash,  and  lime.  Nitrate  of  soda  consists  of  one  part  by  volume 
of  sodium,  one  part  of  nitrogen,  and  three  of  oxygen.  It  is  found 
in  vast  quantities  in  the  rainless  regions  of  South  America  and  espe- 
cially in  some  portions  of  Chile.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  easily  dissolved 
in  water  and  when  in  solution  becomes  immediately  available  for 
the  use  of  plants.  It  is  especially  valuable  for  early  and  quick- 
growing  crops  on  light,  sandy  soils.  On  account  of  the  extreme 
ease  with  which  it  dissolves  it  is  not  advisable  to  apply  nitrate  of 
soda  as  a  fertilizer  to  the  soil  in  the  fall  or  too  early  in  the  spring. 

Nitrogen  in  Ammonia.  —  Ammonia  gas  consists  of  one  part  of 
nitrogen  to  three  parts  of  hydrogen.  It  develops  more  or  less  in 
stable  manure  and  can  be  detected  by  its  characteristic  odor. 
Ammonia  readily  combines  with  acids  to  form  salts,  the  princi- 
pal ones  being  ammonium  sulphate,  ammonium  nitrate,  and 
ammonium  chloride.  Sulphate  of  ammonia  contains  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  oxygen.  It  is  a  by-product  from  the 
manufacture  of  illuminating  gas,  from  the  distillation  of  refuse 
animal  matter,  and  from  the  manufacture  of  bone  black. 
Ammonium  sulphate  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen,  containing  about 
20.5  per  cent  of  this  element.  When  used  on  soils  containing 
clay  or  clay  loams,  it  is  found  very  beneficial. 

Organic  Nitrogen.  —  This  is  composed  of  both  animal  and  vege- 
table matter  and  is  derived  from  a  variety  of  sources.  It  is  found 
in  dried  blood  and  dried  meat  obtained  as  waste  products  from 
packing  houses;  in  tankage,  which  is  the  dried  refuse  from 
slaughter-houses  and  large  packing  plants,  which  contains. skin, 
bone,  hair,  and  meat  particles;  in  dried  fish,  a  waste  product  from 
fish-canning  establishments;  in  leather  meal  and  horn  meal;  in 
castor  pomace,  or  the  refuse  from  the  castor  bean  after  the  oil  has 
been  extracted ;  and  lastly,  in  cotton-seed  meal.  These  fertilizers 
may  be  applied  in  large  quantities  and  at  any  time. 

Potash  Fertilizers.  —  Prior  to  1860  all  potash  fertilizers  were 
obtained  from  wood  ashes  and  stable  manure.  Since  that  time 


FERTILIZERS  133 

large  quantities  of  potash  fertilizers  have  been  shipped  from 
Stassfurt,  Germany,  where  large  deposits  of  potash  salts  have 
been  found  and  mined.  Some  of  the  principal  forms  of  potash 
fertilizers  are:  (1)  kainit,  (2)  sylvinit,  (3)  muriate  of  potash, 
(4)  sulphate  of  potash. 

Kainit  is  composed  of  sodium  chloride,  magnesium  chloride, 
magnesium  sulphate,  and  potassium  sulphate.  It  contains  about 
12J  per  cent  of  potash. 

Sylvinit  is  similar  to  kainit,  but  most  of  the  potash  it  contains  is 
in  the  form  of  a  chloride,  while  in  kainit  most  of  the  potash  is  in 
the  form  of  potassium  sulphate.  Sylvinit  contains  about  16  per 
cent  of  potash.  Both  kainit  and  sylvinit  improve  the  physical 
character  of  the  soil  and  have  a  valuable  solvent  effect  upon  phos- 
phates. 

Muriate  of  potash  is  potassium  chloride  and  contains  about  50 
per  cent  of  potash.  It  dissolves  readily  in  water  and  is  easily 
distributed  through  the  soil. 

Sulphate  of  Potash  is  composed  by  volume  of  two  parts  of 
potassium,  one  of  sulphur,  and  four  of  oxygen.  It  contains  about 
50  per  cent  of  potash  and  is  valuable  as  a  fertilizer  for  sugar 
beets,  tobacco,  potatoes,  and  fruit. 

Sandy  soils  are  generally  lacking  in  potash  and  consequently 
are  greatly  improved  by  the  application  of  potassic  fertilizers. 
Clayey  soils,  on  the  other  hand,  are  generally  better  supplied  with 
potash,  and  their  need  for  fertilizers  containing  this  element  is  not 
so  pressing. 

Phosphatic  Fertilizers.  —  These  fertilizers  contain  phosphoric 
acid  in  the  form  of  phosphates  of  iron,  lime,  alumina,  and  other 
metals.  These  phosphates  fall  naturally  into  two  groups:  (1)  bone 
phosphates,  (2)  mineral  phosphates. 

Bone  phosphates  are  derived,  as  we  might  expect,  from  the  bones 
of  animals  and  contain  phosphorus  in  the  form  of  calcium  phos- 
phate. When  bone  is  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  the  calcium 
phosphate  is  dissolved  out  and  the  soft  animal  matter  remains; 
when  bone  is  burned,  the  organic  matter  is  removed  and  the  cal- 
cium phosphate  remains.  Some  of  the  principal  forms  of  bone 
fertilizers  are  raw  bone,  bone  meal,  bone  dust,  boiled  or  steamed 
bone,  bone  black  or  animal  charcoal,  and  bone  ash. 


134  FERTILIZERS 

Mineral  phosphates  form  what  is  known  as  phosphate  rocks.  In 
the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  in  Canada  there  is  a  species 
of  phosphate  rock  called  apatite  which  frequently  contains  as  high 
as  40  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid.  Large  beds  of  phosphate  rock 
are  also  found  in  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and 
Tennessee,  and  these  deposits  vary  in  thickness  from  one  to  twenty 
feet.  This  form  is  known  as  land  rock  or  land  phosphate.  Some- 
times small  nodules  of  mineral  phosphates  are  found  in  river  beds 
and  are  called  river  rock  or  river  phosphates.  Carolina  phosphates 
contain  from  26  per  cent  to  28  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid.  They 
were  first  worked  in  1868. 

The  presence  of  phosphates  in  Florida  was  first  discovered  in 
1888  and  since  then  they  have  been  mined  extensively.  A  good 
phosphate  bed  is  often  more  valuable  than  a  gold  mine.  The 
Florida  phosphates  occur  in  three  well-defined  forms:  (1)  soft 
phosphate,  containing  from  18  to  30  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid; 
(2)  pebble  phosphate,  containing  frequently  as  high  as  40  per 
cent  of  phosphoric  acid;  (3)  bowlder  phosphate,  often  containing 
40  per  cent  or  more  of  phosphoric  acid. 

Iron  Phosphate  is  produced  in  large  quantities  in  England, 
France,  and  Germany  and  is  a  waste  product  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  steel  from  phosphatic  ores.  It  is  usually  put  on 
the  market  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder  and  contains  from  15  to 
20  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid.  '  It  is  highly  recommended  as  a 
fertilizer  for  clay  and  sandy  soils. 

Guano  Phosphate  is  obtained  from  the  guano  deposits  found 
in  South  America  and  the  rocky  islands  fringing  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  it  is  very  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen.  It  is 
also  found  in  the  West  Indies,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  world's 
supply  comes  from  the  Peruvian  coast.  Guano  consists  of  the 
manure  and  the  dead  bodies  of  certain  fish-eating  fowls  that 
hatch  and  bring  up  their  young  in  the  rocky  islands  of  the  Pacific 
near  Peru. 

Manufacture  of  Commercial  Phosphates.  —  The  phosphates  as 
found  in  nature  are  practically  insoluble  and  cannot  be  used  as 
plant  food  or  fertilizers  until  subjected  to  certain  treatment. 
Generally  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  the  pulverized  phosphate, 
which  converts  it  into  acid  phosphate  containing  three  kinds 


FERTILIZERS  135 

of  phosphorous  compounds:  (1)  soluble  phosphoric  acid,  soluble 
in  water;  (2)  reverted  phosphoric  acid,  soluble  in  weak  acids; 
(3)  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  not  soluble  in  water  but  soluble  in 
strong  acids.  In  good  fertilizers  this  should  not  exceed  1  per  cent. 

Use  of  Fertilizers.  —  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  give  rules  for  the 
use  of  fertilizers  except  in  a  general  way.  There  are  many  sides 
to  this  question,  such  as  the  condition  of  the  soil,  the  kind  of  crop 
desired,  the  nature  of  the  climate,  the  composition  of  the  fertilizers 
that  are  available,  and  many  other  things  along  this  line. 

Nitrogenous  fertilizers,  easily  dissolved,  had  better  be  applied 
to  the  soil  after  the  plant  has  begun  to  grow.  Such  fertilizers  stim- 
ulate leaf  and  stem  growth  and  are  very  beneficial  to  crops  on  soils 
poor  in  decaying  vegetable  matter.  Lettuce,  beets,  asparagus, 
celery,  turnips,  cucumbers,  melons,  sweet  corn,  beans,  peas,  radishes, 
carrots,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  and  meadow  grass  are  all  greatly 
benefited  by  the  use  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers.  The  farmer  may 
find  it  advisable  to  use  other  fertilizing  elements,  but  the  combina- 
tion should  be  such  that  nitrogen  in  general  should  be  the  dominant 
element. 

Phosphatic  fertilizers  in  general  when  in  a  soluble  form  should 
be  applied  only  a  short  time  before  the  plant  requires  the  food  be- 
cause of  the  tendency  to  change  to  insoluble  forms.  But  mineral 
phosphates  and  like  products  which  decay  slowly  may  be  applied 
a  long  time  before  they  are  needed  by  the  plant.  Phosphate 
fertilizers  are  especially  beneficial  to  corn,  clovers,  turnips,  swedes, 
sorghum,  sugar  cane,  and  the  like. 

Potash  Fertilizers.  —  These  should  be  applied  some  time  before 
they  are  required  in  order  to  secure  their  complete  distribution. 
The  fall  season  is  generally  considered  the  best  time  for  applying 
a  potash  fertilizer  on  heavy  soils.  It  is  recommended  for  clovers, 
potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  peas,  beans,  vetches,  and  flax.  Sandy 
soils  are  as  a  rule  deficient  in  potash  and  are  benefited  by  the  ap- 
plication of  such  a  fertilizer. 

Field  Tests.  —  In  order  to  determine  what  fertilizers  are  best 
adapted  to  his  needs  the  farmer  should  lay  off  ten  testing  plots 
about  twenty-one  feet  and  four  inches  wide  and  one  hundred  and  two 
feet  long,  or  any  other  convenient  measurements  which  will  make  a 
plot  containing  about  one  twentieth  of  an  acre.  If  plenty  of  space 


136  FERTILIZERS 

PLAN  FOR  TESTING  GROUNDS.  —  SIZE  OF  PLOTS,  fa  OF  AN  ACRE 


Plot  No.  1. 


Plot  No.  3. 


Plot  No.  4. 


Plot  No.  5. 


Plot  No.  6. 


Plot  No.  7. 


Plot  No.  8. 


Plot  No.  9. 


Plot  No.  10. 


Check 
No  Fertilizer 


Plot  No.  2.  8  Ib.  Nitrate  of  Soda 


16  Ib.  Super- 
phosphate 


8  Ib.  Muriate  of 
Potash 


Check 
No  Fertilizer 


20  Ib.  Nitrate  of  Soda 
16  Ib.  Superphos- 
phate 


20  Ib.  Nitrate  of  Soda 
8  Ib.  Muriate  of  Potash 


40  Ib.  Acid  Phosphate 
8  Ib.  Muriate  of 
Potash 


8  Ib.  Nitrate  of  Soda 
8  Ib.  Muriate  of 

Potash 
16  Ib.  Superphosphate 


Check 
No  Fertilizer 


Check 
No  Fertilizer 


8  Ib.  Nitrate  of  Goda 


8  Ib.  Muriate  of 
Potash 


16  Ib.  Acid  Phosphate 


Check 

No  Fertilizer 

3 

Ib.  Nitrate  of  Soda 

•8 

Ib.  Potash 

8  Ib.  Nitrate  of  Soda 
16  Ib.  Acid  Phos- 
phate 


8  Ib.  Muriate  of 

Potash 
16  Ib.  Acid  Phosphate 


8  Ib.  Nitrate  of  Soda 
8  Ib.  Muriate  of 

Potash 
13  Ib.  Acid  Phosphate 


Check 
No  Fertilizer 


FERTILIZERS  137 

is  available;  plots  containing  one  tenth  of  an  acre  may  be  found 
more  convenient  for  making  rapid  calculations.  Some  experi- 
menters prefer  to  lay  off  plots  containing  just  one  square  rod  and 
apply  the  fertilizer  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  per  square  rod  or 
multiple  thereof.  The  fertilizers  should  be  mixed  with  fine  earth 
and  drilled  in  the  rows  or  else  should  be  sown  broadcast  just  before 
the  planting  time  of  the  crop.  Each  plot  should  be  separated 
from  the  adjoining  one  by  not  less  than  four  feet  to  prevent  mixing 
of  the  fertilizing  agents.  Note  carefully  the  yields  made  on  each 
plot,  the  quality,  quantity,  weight,  and  time  of  maturity  being 
made  the  basis  of  the  comparison.  Lay  off  your  ground  and  apply 
your  fertilizers  according  to  the  diagram  on  the  preceding  page. 

If  the  space  available  for  experimental  purposes  is  small,  onl}r 
four  or  five  plots  need  be  used;  and  if  the  fertilizers  mentioned 
above  cannot  be  obtained,  useful  experiments  may  be  made  by 
using  lime,  wood  ashes,  cotton-seed  meal,  barnyard  manure, 
stable  manure,  rotten  straw,  and  chicken  manure.  When  no 
ground  suitable  for  a  school  garden  or  testing  fields  can  be  obtained, 
the  experiments  may  be  conducted  with  soil  placed  in  tomato  cans. 
If  this  plan  is  used,  test  the  same  fertilizer  with  soil  from  a  number  of 
fields  and  note  the  results.  Repeat  each  experiment  and  thoroughly 
test  your  conclusions  before  announcing  your  results. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Test  the  soil  you  are  experimenting  with  and  ascertain  whether  it 
is  acid.     To  do  this  take  a  little  soil  from  three  to  four  inches  below  the 
surface  and  moisten  it  with  a  little    water.     Dip  a  piece  of  blue  litmus 
paper  in  water  and  then  put  the  paper  in  the  soil.     If  the  paper  turns  red, 
the  soil  is  acid.     What  common  element   should  be  added  to  correct  this 
condition  ?     Before  beginning  the  experiment  test  the  water  used  and  see 
that  it  is  neutral.     Note  the  kind  of  vegetation  found  growing  on  the  soil. 

2.  Secure  another  portion  of  soil  and  test  it  for  alkalinity  by  substituting 
red  litmus  paper  for  blue  litmus  paper  in  the   experiments  suggested  in 
exercise  1.     If  the  litmus  paper  turns  blue,  the  soil  is  alkaline.     When  this 
condition  exists  how  may  the  matter  be  remedied?     Take  soil  containing 
stable  manure  for  this  experiment. 

3.  Test  a  small  portion  of  lime  with  both  blue  and  red  litmus  papers  and 
note  the  results. 

4.  Test  common  wood  ashes  with  litmus  paper  and  compare  the  results 
with  those  obtained  in  experimenting  with  lime. 


138  FERTILIZERS 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Show  the  need  of  soil  improvement. 

2.  Name  and  describe  the  general  classes  of  fertilizers. 

3.  Name  some  of  the  natural  fertilizers. 

4.  Discuss  the  value  of  (a)  lime,  (6)  salt,  (c)  gypsum. 

5.  Discuss  the  value  of  (a)  marl,  (&)  wood  ashes,  (c)  salt. 

6.  What  is  leather  meal  ?     Felt  waste  ?     Hair  waste  ? 

7.  Discuss  the  value  of  muck  and  peat. 

8.  Discuss  the  importance  of  (a)  leaves  and  straw,  (6)  barnyard  manure, 
(c)  stable  manure. 

9.  What  is  compost? 

10.  Discuss  commercial  fertilizers. 

11.  Discuss  the  nitrogenous  fertilizers. 

12.  Describe  briefly  the  potassic  fertilizers. 

13.  Discuss  (a)  the  bone  phosphates,  (6)  the  mineral  phosphates. 

14.  What  can  you  say  of  (a)  iron  phosphate,  (6)  guano  phosphate? 

15.  Discuss  the  manufacture  of  commercial  phosphates. 

16.  Discuss  the  use  of  fertilizers. 

17.  Enlarge  upon  the  necessity  of  field  tests. 

REFERENCES 

Fertilizers,  Voorhees. 
Talks  on  Manure,  Harris. 

Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  Hopkins. 
Barnyard  Manure,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  192. 
r  Renovation  of  worn-out  Soils,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  245. 


XXIV.     ORGANS  OF  VEGETATION 

THE  principal  parts  of  the  plant  are  the  root,  stem,  leaves, 
flowers,  and  seed;  each  has  its  own  special  work  to  do  in  the 
development  and  growth  of  the  plant.  The  first  three  are  usually 
designated  as  organs  of  nutrition  and  the  last  two  as  organs  of 
reproduction. 

The  Root.  —  The  root  grows  downward  and  gives  the  plant  a 
firm  support  in  the  soil.  If  we  examine  this  part  of  the  plant 
closely,  we  find  that  a  portion  of  its  surface  is  thickly  covered  with 
very  fine  rootlets,  through  which  moisture  and  food  elements  are 
drawn  from  the  soil  for  the  use  of  the  plant.  These  elements 
must  undergo  certain  changes,  however,  before  they  can  be  appro- 
priated and  used  by  the  plant.  From  the  roots  there  is  an  upward 
current  which  carries  the  nutritive  element  of  the  soil  through  the 
woody  parts  of  the  stems  to  the  leaves,  where  it  is  changed 
under  the  influence  of  the  air  and  sunlight  upon  the  leaves  and 
made  available  as  plant  food.  Cambium  is  the  name  given  by  old 
physiologists  to  the  nutritive  juice  upon  which  the  plant  lives,  and 
the  cambium  layer  is  the  ring  or  zone  of  tender  wood  forming 
tissue  between  the  bark  and  the  woody  part  of  the  plant.  This 
movement  of  the  sap  from  the  roots  upward  to  the  leaves  we  usually 
designate  as  the  upward  circulation.  If  we  break  off  the  top  of  a 
milkweed  plant,  we  find  that  in  a  short  time  the  sap  movement  will 
cause  the  accumulation  of  a  large  amount  of  the  milky  white 
juice  of  the  plant  on  its  broken  surface.  When  grapevines  are 
pruned  in  the  spring,  the  exudation  of  a  watery  fluid  from  the  cut 
surfaces  is  very  noticeable.  This  sap  movement  is  not  due  alto- 
gether to  capillarity,  but  depends  largely  upon  what  is  termed  root 
pressure.  By  this  term  is  meant  the  force  exerted  in  supplying  the 
water  from  the  soil.  With  many  plants  this  force  is  strongest  in 
the  spring  and  gradually  decreases  as  fall  and  winter  approach. 
The  amount  of  moisture  present  in  the  soil,  temperature  of  the 

139 


140  ORGANS   OF   VEGETATION 

soil,  and  the  time  of  the  day  also  influence  this  force.  With  the 
grapevine  it  gradually  increases  until  noon  and  then  begins  to 
decrease,  while  in  the  case  of  the  sunflower  the  maximum  pressure 
is  reached  before  10  A.M. 

From  the  leaves  the  sap  current  carries  the  newly  formed  plant 
food  downward  through  the  cambium  layer  to  all  parts  of  the  plant 
where  nourishment  is  needed.  If  we  girdle  the  small  twig  of  a  tree 
and  destroy  the  cambium  layer,  the  downward  circulation  of  the 
plant  food  will  stop  where  the  bark  is  cut  and  will  cause  a  noticeable 
enlargement  of  the  twig  at  that  point. 

The  Stem.  —  We  have  already  seen  that  the  stem  and  its 
branches  are  the  channels  through  which  the  sap  movement  is 
carried  on  between  the  roots  and  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  In 
addition  to  this  the  stem  also  bears  the  leaves,  buds,  flowers, 
and  fruit  of  the  plant. 

Stems  may  be  classified  as  (1)  erect,  when  they  grow  in  an 
upright  position;  (2)  prostrate,  when  the  branches  lie  prostrate 
on  the  ground  or  nearly  so  as  in  the  strawberry;  (3)  climbing, 
as  in  the  case  of  .the  morning-glory  and  hop  vine,  where  the  stem 
twines  about  the  support.  Other  examples  slightly  different 
are  seen  in  the  grapevine,  woodbine,  and  the  common  gourd 
plant. 

The  Leaves.  —  If  we  place  a  fruit  jar  over  a  small  plant,  we  find 
that  in  a  very  short  time  the  inner  side  of  the  jar  is  found  covered 
with  small  drops  of  water,  which  has  been  given  off  by  the  leaves. 
This  process  is  called  transpiration,  and  the  amount  of  water  given 
off  through  the  leaves  in  this  way  is  much  larger  than  one  would 
think.  It  is  estimated  that  more  than  three  hundred  pounds  of 
water  pass  through  a  plant  in  the  process  of  transpiration  for 
every  pound  of  dry  solid  matter  assimilated  by  the  plant. 
An  acre  of  good  grass  land  will  exhale  ordinarily  in  well- 
watered  regions  not  less  than  thirty  hogsheads  of  water  every 
day. 

The  leaves  of  the  plant  correspond  in  a  measure  to  the  lungs  of 
animals.  The  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air  is  the  element  that  feeds 
the  plants,  and  without  it  they  cannot  grow.  Although  there  is 
only  about  .03  per  cent  of  this  gas  present  in  the  air,  Draper  says 
that  if  it  were  taken  away  in  an  instant,  the  whole  surface  of  the 


ORGANS   OF   VEGETATION  141 

earth  would  become  a  desolate  waste  without  the  possibility  of 
vegetable  life.  The  carbon  in  plants  and  animals  all  comes 
from  the  air. 

In  1771  Priestley  discovered  in  his  experiments  that  leaves 
sometimes  exhale  carbon  dioxide  and  sometimes  oxygen,  while 
at  other  times  no  gas  at  all  seems  to  be  given  off.  In  1779 
Ingenhousz  proved  that  oxygen  is  given  off  only  when  the  leaves 
and  the  water  in  which  they  were  immersed  were  exposed  to  the 
sunlight,  and  that  carbon  dioxide  is  given  off  in  the  dark.  Carbon 
dioxide,  it  seems,  enters  the  leaves  of  the  plant  by  virtue  of  the 
forces  of  diffusion  and  osmose,  and  the  green  parts  of  the  plant 
have  power  to  decompose  this  carbon  dioxide  in  such  a  way  that 
the  carbon  is  retained  by  the  plant  while  the  oxygen  is  permitted 
to  return  to  the  air.  In  the  entire  absence  of  light  plants  exhale 
no  oxygen,  but  only  carbon  dioxide.  In  the  dark  this  gas  is  not 
only  produced  within  the  plant  by  the  action  of  oxygen  upon 
some  portion  of  it,  but  is  actually  given  off  from  the  plant  into 
the  air. 

The  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  decomposed  at  a  given  time 
depends  on  the  intensity  of  the  light  and  also  on  the  kind  of  light. 
Experiments  show  that  the  decomposition  of  the  carbon  dioxide 
by  the  leaves  is  most  rapid  in  yellow  light  and  the  least  in  violet. 
If  the  maximum  decomposition  by  yellow  light  be  taken  as  100 
per  cent,  the  relative  rate  of  decomposition  of  carbon  dioxide  by 
the  various  colors  of  light  will  be  approximately  as  follows: 

Violet  7.1  Yellow  100  Orange  63 

Green  37.2  Blue  22.1  Red  25.4 

Indigo  13.5 

Other  gases  may  be  absorbed  also  by  leaves,  such  as  the  vapor 
of  ammonia  or  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  added  artificially  to  the 
air,  but  it  does  not  seem  that  light  in  any  marked  way  affects 
the  amount  absorbed.  The  growth  of  plants  is  greatly  stimu- 
lated, however,  by  the  presence  of  either  one. 

The  air  always  contains  small  quantities  of  invisible  vapor  of 
water,  and  it  is  contended  by  some  scientists  that  plants  under 
certain  conditions  may  absorb  directly  for  their  growth  some  of 
this  vapor.  This  view  is  apparently  borne  out  by  the  fact  that 


142  ORGANS   OF  VEGETATION 

branches  of  willow  or  poplar  trees  that  have  been  severed  from 
the  parent  stem  frequently  live  for  months  and  occasionally  form 
new  leaves.  In  spite  of  the  popular  opinion,  however,  the  foliage 
of  ordinary  plants  does  not  usually  absorb  much  of  the  water 
that  falls  upon  it  as  rain,  or  that  is  deposited  upon  it  as  dew.  In 
fact  many  leaves  shed  the  water  as  fast  as  it  falls  on  them.  Hence 
in  watering  plants  our  care  should  be  to  apply  the  water  in  such  a 
way  that  it  will  come  in  contact  with  the  roots  of  the  plant  rather 
than  with  its  leaves. 

Another  fact  that  we  should  not  overlook  is  the  power  of  the 
leaves  of  the  plant  to  radiate  heat.  Experiments  show  that  they 
radiate  heat  more  readily  than  the  soil.  After  a  clear  night  we 
are  likely  to  see  grass  fields  loaded  down  with  a  heavy  dew,  while 
the  adjoining  bare  land  will  be  dry. 

Leaves  of  the  plant  also  play  an  important  part  by  shading 
the  ground  and  protecting  it  from  the  drying  influence  of  the  sun's 

rays.  In  many  cases  the  leaves 
protect  the  soil  against  the 
drying  influence  of  the  wind, 
which  has  less  ready  access  to 
shaded  land  than  to  bare  and 
exposed  land. 

The  Flower.  — The  most  at- 
tractive part  of  nearly  every 
plant  is  the  flower,  which  ap- 
peals so  strongly  to  us  through 
its  beauty  and  fragrance. 

Parts  of  a  flower.  From     the     flower     comes     the 

P,  petal;  SEP,  sepal;  S,  stigma;  St,  stamen.       ,.      . ,  .  .    .  .  ,  ,.        , 

fruit  so  highly  prized  as  food 

and  the  seed  so  necessary  for  the  reproduction  of  plants. 
Every  complete  flower  consists  commonly  of  a  circle  of  greenish 
leaves  forming  an  outer  envelope  called  the  calyx,  and  an  inner 
circle  of  bright-colored  leaves  forming  an  inner  envelope  called 
the  corolla.  This  envelope  is  generally  of  some  other  color  than 
green.  Each  leaf  of  the  calyx  is  called  a  sepal,  and  each  separate 
leaf  of  the  corolla  is  called  a  petal. 

Within  the  corolla  we  find  a  row  of  slender  organs  called  stamens; 
and  in  the  center  of  the  flower,  surrounded  by  the  stamens,  we 


ORGANS  OF  VEGETATION 


143 


Stamen. 

a,  Filament; 
b,  anther. 


find  the  next  set  of  organs  called  the  pistils.  The  pistils  and  sta- 
mens taken  together  are  called  the  essential  organs,  since  their 
presence  is  necessary  for  the  production  of  the  seed  of  the 
plant. 

A  stamen  consists  of  the  filament  or  stalk,  and  the  anther, 
which  is  the  essential  part.  The  anther  contains  a  fine  dust- 
like  substance  called  pollen,  which  fertilizes  the  flower 
and  makes  it  productive.  The  dustlike  particles  of 
pollen  when  examined  under  a  microscope  are  found 
to  be  of  various  forms  and  shapes. 

The  pistil,  when  only  one  is  present,  occupies  the 
center  of  the  flower;  when  there  are  two  pistils,  they 
stand  facing  each  other;  but  when  there  are  several, 
they  commonly  form  a  ring  or  circle.  The  pistil  when 
complete  has  three  parts:  the  ovary,  style,  and  stigma. 
The  ovary  is  the  rounded  portion  at  the  base,  which  is 
hollow  and  contains  one  or  more  ovules  or  rudimentary  seeds. 
The  style  is  a  slender,  tapering  stem  borne  by  the  ovary.  The 
stigma  is  found  at  the  end  of  the  style  and  it  has  a  naked,  moist 
surface  upon  which  grains  of  pollen  lodge  and 
fertilize  the  ovules  in  order  that  they  may  become 
seeds. 

Some  plants,  such  as  the  pear  and  the  tomato, 
have  blossoms  which  contain  both  stamens  and 
pistils  in  the  same  flower,  while  others,  like  Indian 
corn,  bear  their  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate 
flowers.    Sometimes  both  staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers  are  on  the  same  plant,  but  frequently 
they  are  on  entirely  separate  plants.      In  the 
hemp  plant   and   the    hop   vine   the  staminate 
flowers  grow  on  one  plant  and  the  pistillate  flowers  on  another. 
Flowers  having  both  pistils  and  stamens  are  called  perfect 
flowers,  while  those  having  only  one  of  these  organs  are  known  as 
imperfect  flowers. 

Pollination.  —  When  the  stigma  has  been  supplied  with  pollen, 
a  threadlike  or  tubelike  growth  is  sent  down  through  the  pistil 
to  the  ovules  and  they  become  seeds.  This  process  when  com- 
pleted constitutes  what  is  known  as  fertilization. 


• stigma 


style 


ovary 


Pistil. 


144 


ORGANS   OF  VEGETATION 


Fertilization  may  be  classified  under  three  general  heads: 
(1)  close  fertilization,  which  occurs  when  the  pistil  is  fertilized 
by  pollen  from  stamens  growing  in  the  same  flower  with  the  pistil 

or  from  other  flowers  on 
the  same  plant;  (2)  cross 
fertilization,  which  occurs 
when  ovules  are  fertilized 
by  pollen  from  other  plants 
of  the  same  species;  (3)  hy- 
bridization, which  occurs 
when  the  ovules  are  fer- 
tilized by  the  pollen  of 
some  other  nearly  related 
species. 

Pollination  may  be  ac- 
complished through  the 
action  of  the  wind,  which 
•  blows  the  pollen  from  the 
stamens  of  one  flower 
upon  the  pistils  of  another 
flower  as  in  the  case  of  the 
pines  and  oaks;  through 
the  visits  of  insects,  which 
carry  pollen  from  one 
flower  to  another  as  in  the 
case  of  willows  and  other 
dioecious  plants;  and  lastly 
through  hand  pollination 
or  other  human  agency. 
The  last  method  enables 
us  to  know  both  parents 
of  the  seed  we  are  growing 
and  naturally  gives  the 

Fertilization  of  the  ovule.  most    satisfactory  results. 

The  pollen  tubes  pass  through  the  stigma  and  style,     m     in«mvA  nnrrAnt  rp«nlt<a  if 
finally  entering  the  cavity  (locules)  of  the  ovary. 

is   usually  found  best  to 

remove  all  the   anthers  of  the  flowers  upon  which  we  wish  to 
experiment  sometime  before  their  maturity,  and  after  the  flower 


ORGANS   OF  VEGETATION 


145 


has  been  carefully  pollinated  it  is  necessary  to  cover  the  blossom 
with  a  thin  bag  to  prevent  the  access  of  stray  pollen.  Finally,  as 
a  last  precaution  the  fruit  itself  should  be  bagged  to  protect  it 
against  ravages  of  insects  and  birds.  Each  flower  should  be 
carefully  tagged  so  that  no  mistake  may  be  made  in  recording 
our  results. 

The  seeds  are  the  final  product  of  the  flower  and  as  they  approach 
maturity  the  outer  portions  of  the  flower  perish  and  fall  away. 
In  general,  we  may  say  that  every  seed  consists  of  an  outer  coat, 
an  inner  coat,  and  a  kernel.  The  outer  coat  is  often  hard,  while 
the  inner  coat  is  always  thin  and  delicate. 

The  kernel  is  the  body  of  the  seed  within  the  seed  coats  and  it 
contains  the  embryo.  Sometimes  the  embryo  constitutes  the 
principal  part  of  the  kernel  and  sometimes  a 
large  part  of  it  consists  of  albumin. 

The  embryo  is  the  rudimentary  plantlet,  and 
its  essential  parts  are  the  radicle  and  the  cotyle- 
dons. The  cotyledons  are  the  original  pair  of 
leaves  or  seed  leaves,  and  the  initial  stem  on 
which  they  are  supported  is  called  the  radicle. 
Interesting  results  may  be  had  by  germinating  or 
sprouting  some  butter  beans  and  noting  the 
development  of  the  embryo  from  time  to  time. 
Fairly  good  seed  testers  for  germinating  seed  may 
be  made  by  inverting  saucers  in  soup  plates  or 
inverting  small  pie  pans  within  other  pie  pans 
just  a  little  larger.  If  the  first  plan  is  used, 
cover  the  saucers  with  moist  blotting  paper  or  cheesecloth  and 
keep  the  seed  damp  until  the  sprouting  is  complete.  Count  the 
seeds  and  note  the  percentage  that  germinate,  also  note  the  time 
required  for  germination  in  different  seeds.  In  high  schools  and 
colleges  where  the  pupil  is  supplied  with  good  equipment  experi- 
ments should  be  conducted  under  different  temperatures  with  a 
view  to  ascertaining  at  what  temperature  seed  will  germinate  the 
most  rapidly.  Small  sponges  placed  in  a  dish  or  glass  of  water 
may  also  be  used  as  germinators  when  other  materials  are  not 
available.  In  fitting  up  a  seed  tester  by  the  first  plan  it  is  best 
to  place  a  moistened  cloth  above  the  seed  as  well  as  below  the 

PRAC.  AGRICUL.  —  10 


Bean  seedling. 


146  ORGANS   OF  VEGETATION 

seed.    Besides  moisture  the  young  plant  must  have  plenty  of  air. 

If  we  plant  wheat  in  one  vessel  and  cover  it  with  an  inch  or  more 

of  water,  and  place 
on  the  right  of  it 
another  dish  con- 
taining j  ust  enough 
water  barely  to 
cover  the  wheat, 

Seed  tester. 

we  find  in  two  or 

three  days  that  the  seed  in  the  right-hand  vessel  which  have 
access  to  the  air  will  germinate,  while  those  in  the  left-hand  dish 
will  not. 

This  experiment  shows  that  ordinary  plants  must  have  air 
and  that  their  seed  must  also  have  air  before  they  will  germinate. 
For  the  same  reason,  seed  germinate  slowly,  if  at  all,  in  closely 
packed  clayey  soil,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  they  germinate 
rapidly  in  loose  soil  because  the  air  has  access  to  them.  We  find 
that  temperature  also  plays  an  important  part  in  the  process  of 
germination  if  we  plant  a  few  grains  of  corn,  a  few  beans,  and  a 
few  clover  seed  in  the  same  kind  of  soil  in  four  different  tumblers 
and  treat  them  as  follows:  Set  one  tumbler  in  a  refrigerator, 
one  in  a  cellar,  one  in  a  warm  room,  and  place  the  fourth  one  near 
a  furnace  or  a  stove.  Record  the  number  of  seed  used  in  each 
case  and  calculate  the  percentage  of  germination  for  each  kind  of 
seed  and  at  each  temperature.  Ascertain  the  approximate  tem- 
perature in  each  case  by  means  of  a  thermometer.  Repeat  the 
experiment  with  reference  to  light  by  placing  one  tumbler  where 
it  will  have  sunlight,  another  in  the  light  of  the  window  but  where 
sunlight  cannot  reach  it,  a  third  one  in  a  darkened  room,  and  the 
fourth  one  in  a  dark  cellar;  and  note  the  results.  From  this 
experiment  we  see  that  light  is  likewise  an  important  factor  in 
germination. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Secure  a  weed  or  some  other  plant  and  make  a  drawing  of  it,  showing 
the  roots,  stem,  branches,  and  leaves. 

2.  Estimate  the  amount  of  root  surface  and  compare  this  with  the 
amount  of  leaf  surface  of  the  plant  secured. 

3.  Secure  a  flower,  make  a  drawing  showing  its  various  parts,  and  give 
their  names. 


ORGANS   OF   VEGETATION  147 

4.   Make  a  seed  tester.     Test  the  rapidity  of  germination  of  several  kinds 
of  seed.     Determine  the  amount  of  moisture  needed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  principal  parts  of  the  plant. 

2.  Describe  the  root  and  its  growth. 

3.  Describe  the  stem. 

4.  Name  the  classes  of  stems. 

5.  Discuss  the  leaves  and  their  functions. 

6.  Calculate  the  amount  of  water  probably  exhaled  daily  by  the  grass  in 
a  pasture  of  fifty  acres. 

7.  Discuss  the  discoveries  of  Priestley  and  Ingenhousz. 

8.  Discuss  the  effect  of  colored  lights  on  the  decomposition  of  carbon 
dioxide  by  the  leaves. 

9.  Discuss  the  power  of  leaves  to  radiate  heat. 

10.  Describe  the  flower  and  its  parts. 

11.  Discuss  pollination. 

12.  What  is  (a)  close  fertilization,  (6)  cross  fertilization,  (c)  hybridization  ? 

13.  Describe  (a)  the  seed,  (6)  the  kernel,  (c)  the  embryo. 

REFERENCES 

Botany  All  the  Year  Round,  Andrews. 

Lessons  in  Botany,  Gray. 

Plant  Life  on  the  Farm,  M.  T.  Masters. 


XXV.     PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS 

OF  all  the  duties  that  devolve  upon  the  farmer  there  is  none  of 
more  importance  than  that  of  propagating  plants,  but  this  subject 
has  never  been  given  the  serious  attention  by  some  farmers  that 
it  deserves.  Mr.  Luther  Burbank,  in  the  development  of  edible 
and  thornless  cactus  and  the  world-renowned  Burbank  potato,  has 
shown  that  we  have  much  yet  to  hope  for,  in  the  way  of  discover- 
ies concerning  the  propagation  and  reproduction  of  plants. 

Plants  may  be  propagated  in  five  different  ways:  (1)  by  seed- 
ing; (2)  cutting;  (3)  budding;  (4)  grafting;  (5)  layering. 

The  object  of  propagation  is:  (1)  to  renew  the  generation  or 
prevent  the  stock  from  becoming  extinct;  (2)  to  increase  the  num- 
ber of  plants;  (3)  to  develop  new  varieties  under  certain  condi- 
tions; (4)  to  fix  and  perpetuate  a  special  variety;  (5)  to  strengthen 
and  improve  the  fixed  variety  of  any  species. 

Propagation  by  Seed.  —  This  is  the  common  method  of  propa- 
gating plants,  and  its  success  will  depend  largely  upon  the  judg- 
ment we  exercise  in  the  selection  of  seed.  The  quality  of  the  seed 
will  depend  upon  their  purity  and  vitality. 

Purity.  —  One  of  the  first  requisites  of  good  seed  is  absolute 
purity.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  seed  we  buy  is 
mixed  with  the  seed  of  weeds  and  other  injurious  plants,  and  much 
damage  results  in  this  way.  In  selecting  our  seed  it  is  always  best 
to  buy  from  some  reliable  seed  house,  even  if  the  price  is  much 
higher  than  that  made  by  other  houses  of  doubtful  reputation. 
It  takes  time  and  considerable  trouble  to  examine  seed  for  purity, 
but  it  is  sure  to  result  in  a  great  saving  in  the  end.  The  vitality 
and  purity  of  seed  may  be  learned  as  follows :  (1)  by  sowing  a  given 
number  of  the  seed  in  a  small  space  and  noting  the  percentage 
which  sprout;  (2)  close  examination  of  the  seed  with  the  eye; 

(3)  by  examining  the  seed  with  a  magnifying  glass  or  microscope; 

(4)  by  the  sense  of  touch  in  expert  samplers  and  testers. 
Vitality.  —  Sometimes  our  seed  may  be  absolutely  pure  and 

148 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS 


149 


still  the  results  obtained  in  sowing  may  be  somewhat  unsatis- 
factory. Correct  size,  form,  color,  and  odor  are  not  always  suf- 
ficient to  insure  the  germination  of  the  seed  that  we  sow.  When 
the  results  under  such  conditions  still  prove  disappointing,  the  seeds 
are  lacking  in  vitality.  The  things  that  affect  the  vitality  of  seeds 
are  as  follows:  (1)  the  maturity  of  the  seed;  (2)  the  vigor  and  gen- 
eral condition  of  the  parent  plant;  (3)  the  age  of  the  seeds;  (4)  the 
method  of  their  preservation  or  the  proper  conditions  of  storage. 

Maturity.  —  The  significance  of  after  ripening  for  the  formation 
of  perfect  seeds  cannot  be  overestimated,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  dead  ripe  seeds  are  the  best  for  sowing.  This  is 
clearly  shown  in  the  experiments  made  by  Hellriegel.  He  selected 
a  number  of  rye  plants,  from  a  good  field  of  this  grain,  at  five 
different  periods  of  maturity.  The  first  sample  of  seed  was  taken 
when  both  plant  and  grain  were  still  completely  green  and  the 
seeds  were  small  and  watery.  The  second  sample  was  secured 
when  the  plant  was  still  green,  but  the  seeds  were  large  and  yielded 
a  milky  juice  on  being  compressed.  The  third  sample  was  taken 
when  the  straw  was  turning  yellow  and  the  seeds  were  full  of  starch, 
though  still  green  and  very  soft.  The  fourth  sample  was  obtained 
when  the  straw  was  yellow  and  rather  dry  and  the  seeds  were  hard 
and  no  longer  juicy,  but  yellow  ripe.  The  fifth  sample  was  taken 
when  both  straw  and  grain  were  dry  and  the  latter  easily  shaken 
out  of  the  ears.  About  one  hundred  seeds  of  each  sample  were 
sown  in  good  soil  in  earthenware  jars.  The  percentage  of  germi- 
nation is  shown  in  the  following  tabular  statement : 


IST  SAMPLE 

2o  SAMPLE 

3D  SAMPLE 

4xH  SAMPLE 

STH  SAMPLE 

4i% 

5% 

9|% 

36% 

84% 

Hellriegel  says  that  the  young  plants  from  the  overripe  seeds 
were  decidedly  the  strongest  and  most  vigorous,  the  others  being 
smaller  and  feebler  very  much  in  proportion  as  the  seeds  from 
which  they  grew  had  been  gathered  earlier. 

Condition  of  the  Parent  Plant.  — Sickly  looking  plants  develop 
poor  seed,  and  such  seed  produce  feeble  plants.  It  may  be  some- 
what troublesome  to  go  over  a  field  of  grain  and  select  seed  by 


150  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS 

hand,  but  it  will  always  pay  in  the  end.  Pick  out  such  plants  as 
you  wish  to  reproduce  and  select  your  seed  from  them.  In  select- 
ing seed  corn  we  may  consider  the  size  of  the  ears  of  corn,  the  size 
of  the  individual  grains,  the  number  of  ears  of  corn  on  each  stalk, 
the  percentage  of  blades  and  stalk  in  the  plant,  and  other  points  of 
this  kind. 

We  must  also  consider  the  yield,  and  the  ability  of  the  plant  to  re- 
sist drouth,  inclemency  of  the  weather,  and  insect  pests.  Mr.  Abra- 
ham Fultz,  about  1862,  while  passing  through  a  field  of  bearded 
wheat  in  Pennsylvania  found  three  heads  that  were  beardless. 
He  planted  the  seeds  from  these  and  found  that  the  resulting  crop 
was  not  only  beardless  but  very  productive.  By  saving  all  the 
seed  and  planting  them  again  from  time  to  time  he  soon  had  an 
ample  supply  of  this  new  variety  of  wheat,  which  has  long  been 
famous  under  the  name  of  Fultz  wheat. 

Variation  in  climate  produces  marked  effects  in  the  structure 
and  habits  of  plants  which  sometimes  may  be  turned  to  good 
advantage.  Northern-grown  potatoes  on  account  of  the  shortness 
of  the  growing  season  mature  early  and  do  not  lose  this  tendency 
when  planted  in  Southern  latitudes.  For  this  reason  we  find  it 
advisable  frequently  to  secure  our  seed  potatoes  from  Minnesota, 
Ohio,  and  other  Northern  States.  When  this  is  done  we  generally 
have  more  thrifty  plants  and  better  yields. 

Age  of  Seed.  —  As  a  rule  seeds  do  not  germinate  well  when  they 
are  more  than  a  year  old,  but  some  seeds  retain  their  vitality  for 
three  or  four  years  or  even  longer.  Onions  and  parsnips  do  not 
retain  their  normal  vitality  for  more  than  a  year,  and  the  seed 
after  that  time  germinate  very  poorly.  Maize  and  some  of  the 
larger  grains  retain  their  vitality  for  a  much  longer  time.  Varieties 
of  maize  have  been  found  in  the  old  tombs  or  Indian  mounds  of  the 
United  States,  Mexico,  and  Peru,  which  some  experimenters  have 
succeeded  in  germinating,  in  spite  of  the  great  age  of  the  seed, 
but  such  instances  are  rare.  When  time  and  conditions  are  favor- 
able teachers  should  secure  a  quantity  of  seed,  and  plant  samples 
of  the  same  every  year  for  a  period  of  years  and  note  the  decreasing 
vitality  of  the  seed  from  time  to  time.  The  results  obtained  with 
different  seeds  will  be  very  interesting  and  instructive.  In  mak- 
ing your  experiments  see  (1)  that  in  each  case  the  embryo  or  the 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS 


151 


germ  of  the  new  plant  is  uninjured,  (2)  that  sufficient  warmth  and 
moisture  is  present;  (3)  that  the  soil  is  loose  and  porous  and  free 
from  injurious  elements;  (4)  that  the  soil  used  is  supplied  with  the 
proper  nutritive  elements;  (5)  that  proper  conditions  of  air  and 
sunlight  are  provided. 

Preservation  and  Storage.  —  Much  depends  on  the  care  of  the 
seed  we  select  for  use.  Select  as  far  as  possible  well-formed  and 
perfect  seed,  and  when  necessary  free  them  from  all  pulpy  material 
that  would  cause  them  to  decay.  See  that  they  are  carefully 
dried  in  the  sun  or  under  a  moderate  temperature  if  artificial  heat 
is  used  to  hasten  the  process,  and  then  store  them  in  a  cool  dry  place 
free  from  the  ravages  of  rats,  mice,  and  insects. 

Propagation  by  Cuttings.  —  Another  way  of  propagating  plants 
is  by  cuttings.  A  cutting  is  a  portion  of  the  plant  which  when 


Green  wood  cuttings. 

cut  off  and  placed  in  the  soil  under  proper  conditions  will  take  root 
and  grow.     This  cutting  should  have  at  least  one  healthy  bud. 

Cuttings  of  some  plants,  like  the  willow  and  the  oleander,  put 
out  roots  in  a  short  time  and  grow  very  readily.  Secure  a  small 
cutting  of  an  oleander  by  cutting  off  the  end  of  a  healthy  branch, 
remove  all  the  leaves  but  two  or  three  near  the  top  of  the  twig, 
and  place  the  cut  end  in  a  bottle  of  water.  Keep  the  bottle  near  the 
window  where  the  plant  can  have  proper  light  and  air,  and  in  a  few 
days  tiny  roots  will  begin  to  form.  When  sufficient  roots  have 
been  formed,  break  the  bottle,  remove  the  twig,  and  transplant  it 


152  PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS 

to  a  pot  of  warm  moist  soil,  taking  care  not  to  break  or  injure  the 
roots.  Fruit  jars  with  pasteboard  covers  through  which  the  twig 
may  be  put  will  be  better  than  bottles  when  it  is  possible  to  secure 
them.  Cuttings  may  be  made  from  green  wood  or  hard  wood 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  plant.  When  made  in 
the  fall  or  winter  while  the  plant  is  dormant,  they  are 
called  dormant  cuttings.  There  are  three  general 
kinds  of  cuttings:  (1)  leaf  cuttings,  (2)  stem  cuttings, 
(3)  rgot  cuttings. 

Leaf  Cuttings.  —  There  are  some  plants,  like  the 
begonia,  which  can  be  grown  from  leaves.  The  leaf  is 
secured  from  a  healthy  plant  and  its  base  and  stem 
are  buried  in  moist  sand.  In  a  short  time  roots  will 
develop  at  the  cut  ends  and  new  plants  will  be  formed. 
Stem  Cuttings.  —  These  may  be  made  of  soft  green 
wood  or  of  mature  hard  wood.  Of  the  soft  kind  we 
may  take  slips  of  ageratum,  coleus,  fuchsia,  geranium, 
heliotrope,  nasturtium,  tomato,  carnation,  and  the 
like.  Of  the  hard  wood  we  may  take  clippings  of  grapevines, 
currant  plants,  roses,  dogwood,  etc.  In  preparing  soft  cuttings 
we  should  secure  shoots  having  not  less  than  two  nodes  or 
joints,  and  the  stem  should  be  cut  just  below  or  near  the  lower 
node.  Next  reduce  the  leaf  surface  until  only  one  half  or  one 
third  of  the  leaves  remain,  and  then  place  the  cutting  in  a  green- 
house bed  of  moist,  clean,  and  rather  coarse  sand  or  in  a  saucer 
of  clean  sand  in  a  sunny  window.  Cuttings  of  oleanders  and 
the  umbrella  plant  may  be  started  in  water  without  the  sand. 
In  case  the  umbrella  plant  is  used,  the  leaves,  instead  of  the  stem, 
are  immersed  in  the  water.  It  is  generally  best  to  clip  the  tuft  of 
leaves  on  the  umbrella  cutting  to  within  an  inch  of  the  stem 
before  putting  it  in  the  water  for  propagation. 

Hard  wood  or  dormant  cuttings  are  taken  from  the  mature  wood 
of  the  last  season's  growth  in  the  fall  or  winter,  and  they  usually 
contain  two  or  more  buds.  These  may  be  taken  any  time  after  the 
leaves  fall  off  before  cold  weather  begins.  See  that  the  shoot 
is  cut  off  just  below  the  lower  node,  but  allow  one  fourth  of  an  inch 
of  the  stem  to  extend  above  the  upper  node.  Pack  the  cuttings 
in  green  sawdust  or  moist  sand  and  place  them  in  a  damp  cool 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS  153 

place  where  they  will  not  freeze  during  the  winter.  A  common 
cave  or  cellar  may  be  utilized  for  this  purpose. 

In  the  spring  or  when  the  weather  is  favorable  plant  the  cuttings 
in  an  oblique  position  and  cover  them  with  soil  up  to  the  top  bud. 
They  should  be  cultivated  frequently  and  kept  free  from  weeds. 

Root  Cuttings.  —  Many  plants  may  be  propagated  by  root  cut- 
tings. In  the  horseradish  and  rhubarb  plants  these  cuttings  are 
really  parts  of  underground  stems  bearing  buds,  while  in  the  black- 
berry and  quince  they  are  cuttings  from  real  roots  which  bear  no 
buds  or  leaves.  The  ability  of  some  plants,  like  mint,  couch  grass, 
etc.,  to  spread  so  rapidly  is  due  to  the  facility  with  which  their 
underground  stems  take  root  and  grow.  Chopping  or  cutting  up 
such  roots  only  accelerates  their  propagation  instead  of  checking  it. 
In  propagating  blackberry  plants  it  is  best  to  make  the  cuttings  2 
or  3  inches  long. 

Propagating  Plants  by  Budding.  —  Budding  consists  in  transfer- 
ring a  bud  from  one  plant  and  inserting  it  in  the  bark  of  some  allied 
or  closely  related  plant  in  which  it  will  become  attached  and 
develop.  Many  plants  do  not  produce  offspring  like  the  parent 
stock  when  grown  from  seed,  but  buds  always  produce  fruit  like 
that  borne  by  the  tree  or  plant  from  which  they  were  taken.  Two 
methods  of  budding  are  in  general  use:  (1)  the  pocket  or  T-cleft 
method,  (2)  the  ring  method. 

The  T-Cleft  Method.  —  In  this  method  a  horizontal  incision  is 
made  in  the  stock  to  be  budded,  and  just  below  the  center  of  this 
cut  another  incision  is  made  in  the  bark  at  right  angles  to  it  so  as 
to  form  a  T-shaped  cleft.  These  incisions  should  be  made  close 
to  the  ground  and  on  the  north  side  of  the  stock,  which  should  be 
a  hardy  one-year-old  seedling.  Next  secure  the  bud  that  is  to  be 
transferred,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  vascular  bundles  on  its 
under  surface,  and  insert  it  in  the  incision  in  the  stock  previously 
prepared,  and  adjust  it  so  that  the  cambium  layer  of  the  bud  will 
come  in  contact  with  the  cambium  layer  of  the  stock.  Then  press 
the  bark  down  close  and  wrap  the  wound  carefully  with  moist 
soft  twine,  cotton  yarn,  raffia,  or  other  suitable  material.  In 
about  ten  days  the  bud  will  unite  with  the  stock  if  it  takes,  and  the 
wrapping  material  should  be  cut  away.  At  the  same  time  the  seed- 
ling stock  should  be  cut  off  at  the  top  to  within  an  inch  or  two  of 


154 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS 


the  bud,  so  that  all  the  energy  of  the  plant  will  be  directed  into  the 
bud.     This  kind  of  budding  should  be  done  in  the  fall  or  spring 


T-cleft  budding. 

when  the  bark  will  peel  easily  and  mature  buds  can  be  easily 
procured. 

The  Ring  or  Annular  Method.  —  In  this  method  a  ring  or  loop 
of  bark  extending  nearly  around  the  stock  is  removed,  and  a  corre- 
sponding section  containing  the  bud  is  removed  from  the  other 
plant  and  inserted  in  this  incision  in  the  same  manner  practically 
as  is  done  in  the  case  of  the  T-cleft  method.  This  is  the  usual 
method  of  budding  pecans  and  oranges  and  is  largely  used  in  the 
South.  By  budding  fine  varieties  of  oranges  on  hardy  seedlings 
able  to  withstand  cold  inclement  weather  we  may  be  able  to  grow 
oranges  in  many  States  where  formerly  it  would  have  been  utterly 
impossible. 

Propagating  Plants  by  Grafting,  or  Grafts.  —  A  graft  is  a  small 
shoot  of  one  tree  inserted  in  another  tree.  It  is  so  named  from 
the  resemblance  of  the  shoot  to  a  pointed  pencil.  The  word  graft 
itself  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  graphein,  which  means  to  write. 
The  young  twig  or  branch  which  is  inserted  we  call  the  scion,  and  the 
young  seedling  tree  in  which  it  is  placed  we  call  the  stock.  The 
scions  should  be  cut  late  in  the  fall  from  firm  hard  wood  and  should 
be  packed  in  dry  leaves  or  excelsior  and  kept  in  the  cellar  until 
needed  for  use  in  the  spring.  With  reference  to  the  method  of  in- 
sertion of  the  scion  into  the  stock,  grafting  may  be  divided  into 
(1)  cleft  grafting,  and  (2)  tongue  or  whip  grafting. 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS 


155 


Cleft  Grafting.  —  In  this  method  of  grafting  we  saw  off  or  cut  off 
the  main  limbs  of  the  stock  at  points  where  they  are  sufficiently 
large  to  admit  of  being  cleft.  Then  we  cut  out  a  wedge-shaped 


Cleft  grafting. 

piece  of  wood  from  the  center  of  each  branch  sufficiently*  large  to 
receive  the  scion. 

Next,  we  prepare  two  scions  by  trimming  them  to  wedge-shaped 
points  so  that  they  will  fit  into  the  cleft  of  the  stock,  taking  care 
that  each  scion  when  placed  in  position  will  have  at  least  two  buds 
pointing  obliquely  upward.  See  that  the  cambium  layer  of  the 
scion  coincides  with  that  of  the  stock,  as  in  d  of  the  diagram, 
so  that  the  sap  from  the  stock  may  flow  into  the  scion  and  furnish 
it  with  proper  nourishment.  Then  apply  sufficient  pressure  to 
insure  that  union  takes  place,  and  carefully  protect  all  exposed 
surfaces  from  the  action  of  moisture  and  sunlight  by  covering 
them  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  grafting  wax.  If  these  details 
are  carefully  worked  out  we  may  reasonably  expect  success  to 
attend  our  efforts.  Grafting  wax  may  be  made  by  melting  to- 
gether one  ounce  of  tallow  or  linseed  oil,  four  ounces  of  rosin,  and 
two  ounces  of  beeswax.  If  the  proportion  of  beeswax  and  rosin 
is  increased,  the  grafting  wax  will  be  made  correspondingly 
harder.  After  melting,  the  mixture  should  be  poured  into  cold 
water,  and  as  soon  as  it  can  be  handled  it  should  be  taken  from 
the  water  and  pulled  like  taffy  until  it  becomes  light-colored  and 
pliable. 


156 


PROPAGATION   OP  PLANTS 


Whip  Grafting.  —  Secure  a  scion  of  the  same  size  as  the  stock. 

Trim  the  scion  at  the  lower  end  into  the  shape  of  a  double  wedge 

as  shown  under  (a)  in  the  dia- 
gram. Then  slip  the  scion  into 
a  double  wedge-shaped  cleft  (6) 
as  shown  under  (c),  and  finally 
wrap  it  as  shown  under  (d). 

The  grafting  cloth  may  be 
made  by  coating  thin  muslin 
with  ordinary  grafting  wax. 

Grafting  by  the  two  methods 
just  described  is  known  as  Stem 
Grafting. 

Root  Grafting.  —  In  this 
method  the  roots  of  seedlings 
one  or  two  years  old  are  used 
as  stocks,  and  either  the  whole 
primary  root  or  only  a  piece  of 
the  root  may  be  used.  The 
method  of  procedure  is  similar 
to  that  prescribed  for  ordinary 
whip  grafting  already  described. 
Propagating  Plants  by  Layering.  —  This  is  one  of  the  safest  and 

simplest  ways  of  propagating  plants.     The  branches  while  still 

attached     to     the 

parent     plant     are 

covered    with    soil 

with  the  exception 

of  the  tips  of  the 

branches.       In     a 

short  time  roots  are 

developed  from  the 


Whip  grafting. 


covered  portions  of 
the  stem  and  a  new 
plant  results.  The 


Layering. 

black   raspberry  and   the   strawberry   are 


examples  of  plants  that  propagate  by  layering  in  nature.  The 
currant  and  the  grape  are  examples  of  plants  that  may  be  made 
to  propagate  by  artificial  layering. 


PROPAGATION   OF   PLANTS  157 

EXERCISES 

1.  Let  each  pupil  plant  100  grains  of  wheat  and  determine  the  percent- 
age of  vitality. 

2.  Propagate  two  plants  by  cuttings  and  write  the  results  of  the  ex- 
periment. 

3.  Let  each  pupil  prepare  two  specimens  of  work  in  budding. 

4.  Let  each  pupil  prepare  specimens  of  work  showing  the  various  kinds 
of  grafting. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  importance  of  the  propagation  of  plants. 

2.  Name  the  various  ways  in  which  propagation  may  be  effected. 

3.  Name  the  objects  of  propagation. 

4.  Discuss  the  propagation  of  plants  by  seed. 

5.  Discuss  the  importance  of  purity  and  vitality. 

6.  What  can  you  say  of  the  necessity  of  maturity  in  the  seed  ? 

7.  Discuss  the  condition  of  the  parent  plant  and  the  effect  of  this  on  the 
seed. 

8.  What  effect  has  age  on  germination  ? 

9.  Discuss  the  need  of  preservation  and  proper  storage  for  seed. 

10.  Discuss  propagation  by  cuttings. 

11.  Describe  (a)  leaf  cuttings,  (6)  stem  cuttings.     Prepare  specimens. 

12.  Discuss  root  cuttings. 

13.  Explain  the  art  of  budding.  - 

14.  Discuss  grafting.     Prepare  specimens. 

15.  Describe  root  grafting. 

16.  Discuss  layering.     Illustrate. 

REFERENCES 

Art  of  Propagation,  Jenkins. 

The  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,  Bailey. 

How  to  make  School  Gardens,  Chapter  on  Grafting,  Hemenway. 


XXVI.     IMPROVEMENT   OF   PLANTS 

Origin  of  Domestic  Plants.  —  Many  of  our  common  cultivated 
plants  have  been  so  changed  and  improved  under  the  care  of  man 
that  we  can  scarcely  realize  that  they  originated  from  wild  inferior 
plants.  The  potato  is  not  a  native  of  Ireland,  as  many  people 
suppose,  but  its  home  is  in  some  of  the  high  valleys  of  the  Andes 
Mountains;  and  travelers  passing  through  South  America  may 
often  see  Indians  selling  these  wild  potatoes  in  the  streets  of  Peru- 
vian and  Bolivian  cities.  Many  of  these  wild  varieties  are  no 
larger  than  a  common  marble  and  have  such  a  strong,  disagreeable 
flavor  that  most  of  us  would  not  care  to  eat  them  at  all.  The 
chrysanthemum  was  once  regarded  as  a  pestiferous  weed,  and  the 
tomato  at  one  time  was  grown  simply  as  an  ornamental  plant  and 
its  fruit  was  regarded  as  poisonous.  From  the  insignificant 
European  crab  apple  many ,  of  the  fine  varieties  of  apple  trees 
have  been  derived.  Strawberries  and  blackberries  afford  striking 
illustrations  of  what  changes  may  be  brought  about  by  careful 
cultivation,  since  the  wild  varieties  of  both  plants  are  quite 
common  in  many  parts  of  our  country,  and  may  be  easily  compared 
with  the  cultivated  varieties. .  As  we  note  the  differences  in  the 
wild  varieties  and  the  cultivated  varieties  of  the  same  plant,  the 
question  naturally  arises  by  what  means  has  the  improvement  of 
the  plant  been  brought  about.  In  reply  we  can  say  that  all  plant 
improvement  depends  on  three  factors:  (1)  variation,  (2)  heredity, 
(3)  selection. 

Variation.  —  This  is  the  first  requisite  toward  the  improvement 
of  plants  and  is  the  chief  means  through  which  progress  is  pos- 
sible. By  variation  we  mean  the  tendency  of  the  plant  to  be  un- 
like its  parent.  If  we  go  out  into  a  field  of  corn,  we  shall  not  find 
any  two  plants  that  are  alike  in  all  respects.  One  plant  will  have 
a  tall  stalk,  another  a  thick,  heavy  stalk;  one  will  have  a  large 
number  of  small,  short  ears,  while  another  will  have  a  few  long,  large 
ears.  One  ear  will  have  heavy  thick  grains  of  a  light  color,  while 

158 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS  159 

another  ear  on  a  neighboring  stalk  may  have  small  grains  of  a 
darker  color.  In  the  whole  field  we  shall  not  find  any  two 
plants  exactly  alike.  These  slight  differences  give  us  the  start- 
ing point  for  the  improvement  of  the  parent  plant  and  for  the 
origination  of  new  varieties.  When  variation  does  not  occur 
naturally  to  any  marked  extent,  it  may  be  brought  about  by 
(a)  change  in  the  food  supply,  (6)  the  action  of  light,  (c)  prun- 
ing, (d)  cross  fertilization,  (e)  bud  variation. 

The  Food  Supply.  —  Many  experiments  show  that  the  food 
supply  of  plants  is  an  important  factor  in  bringing  about  variation. 
Japanese  and  Chinese  gardeners  for  ages  past  have  dwarfed  many 
well-known  plants  by  giving  them  a  scanty  food  supply.  In  this 
way  many  varieties  of  forest  trees  have  been  dwarfed  and  so  re- 
duced in  size  that  they  might  be  grown  in  ordinary  flower  pots 
without  difficulty.  This  is  accomplished  by  starting  the  plants 
in  sand  which  contains  only  a  limited  amount  of  the  food  elements 
needed  by  the  plants.  This  method  of  starting  and  growing  plants 
is  called  sand  culture.  In  some  cases  water  is  used  in  place  of 
sand,  but  in  this  case  some  kind  of  artificial  support  must  be 
provided  for  keeping  the  plant  in  position.  Hyacinths  and  many 
bulbs  of  like  nature,  as  well  as  cuttings  of  rose  bushes  and  of  the 
so-called  wandering  Jew,  may  be  made  to  grow  in  water  contain- 
ing the  necessary  food  elements  in  solution.  This  is  called  water 
culture. 

Experiments  also  show  that  excess  of  food  elements  causes  much 
variation  in  the  growth  and  development  of  plants.  The  greatest 
variation  is  due  to  the  nature  and  kind  of  food  elements  supplied. 
One  of  the  most  important  elements  is  nitrogen,  which  is  very 
necessary  to  the  successful  development  of  all  plants  of  heavy 
foliage  and  luxuriant  growth.  If  we  desire  plants  of  small  size 
with  less  foliage  and  more  fruit,  we  find  it  necessary  to  use  fertilizers 
containing  potash  and  phosphorus.  From  this  it  appears  that 
we  may  alter  the  character  of  the  crop,  and  the  quantity  of  the 
crop,  by  changing  certain  conditions  of  food  supply. 

The  Supply  of  Light.  —  Another  very  important  factor  in 
producing  variation  in  plants  is  the  kind  and  quantity  of  light 
supplied.  Interesting  experiments  to  show  the  effect  of  colored 
lights  on  the  growth  of  plants  may  be  made  in  hothouses  lighted 


160  IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS 

only  by  electricity.  The  change  in  light  desired  may  be  effected 
by  using  globes  or  bulbs  of  different  colors. 

Another  interesting  study  is  the  effect  of  different  kinds  of 
light  on  plant  growth.  Experiments  show  that  plants  will  grow 
under  the  influence  of  electric  light  and  make  satisfactory  develop- 
ment. Acetylene  gas  has  also  been  tried  with  some  success. 
Natural  gas  and  ordinary  illuminating  gas  give  off  many  products 
that  are  very  injurious  to  plants,  and  they  cannot  be  satisfactorily 
used  in  our  experiments  with  plants  unless  arranged  and  placed 
in  such  a  position  that  none  of  the  injurious  products  of  the  gas 
can  come  in  contact  with  the  plants.  Many  scientists  have  sup- 
plemented the  action  of  the  sunlight  by  subjecting  plants  to  the 
action  of  electric  light  at  night,  and  in  practically  every  instance 
the  plants  made  greater  and  more  rapid  growth.  This  discovery 
is  likely  to  be  of  little  value  until  some  cheaper  and  better  method 
of  getting  electricity  is  found. 

The  amount  and  intensity  of  light  produce  a  very  marked  effect 
on  the  growth  of  plants.  Those  grown  under  the  action  of  sun- 
light in  the  open  air  generally  make  the  most  satisfactory  progress. 
Interesting  experiments  showing  this  may  be  made  by  growing 
plants  in  a  cellar  or  dark  room,  in  rooms  where  only  diffused 
light  and  no  direct  sunlight  is  present,  and  in  open-air  plats  where 
the  sunlight  is  unobstructed.  If  plants  are  grown  in  beds  some- 
what shaded  by  being  covered  with  colored  glass,  we  find  that  the 
growth  of  the  plants  is  less  than  the  growth  of  those  grown  in  ordi- 
nary sunlight,  so  far  as  perfect  development  is  concerned.  If  we 
compare  plants  grown  in  the  dark  with  the  same  kinds  of  plants 
grown  in  sunlight,  we  find  that  their  stems  are  longer  and  more 
slender  than  the  latter.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  light  has  a  re- 
tarding influence  on  the  elongation  of  the  stem.  In  general  we 
may  say  that  the  action  of  light  on  plants  is  manifested  in  the 
following  ways: 

(1)  In  the  elongation  of  the  stem;  (2)  the  direction  of  the  stem; 
(3)  heliotropism,  or  the  tendency  of  the  plant  to  direct  its  stem 
and  growth  towards  the  source  of  light  (This  is  very  marked  in 
the  sunflower;  in  the  morning  its  leaves  and  flowers  are  directed 
towards  the  east  and  in  the  afternoon  they  are  directed  westward 
to  the  sun  ) ;  f4)  diaheliotropism,  or  the  tendency  of  leaves  of  some 


IMPROVEMENT   OF  PLANTS  161 

plants  when  exposed  to  the  open  lighted  sky  to  assume  a  hori- 
zontal position  or  one  at  right  angles  to  the  source  of  light  (The 
leaves  of  plants  in  the  house  having  a  side  illumination  only  are 
usually  turned  with  their  upper  surfaces  toward  the  source  of  light 
or  perpendicular  to  the  incidence  of  the  rays  of  light.);  (5)  the 
arrangement  of  the  leaves  in  rosette  form  as  seen  in  peppergrass, 
sow  thistle,  English  plantain,  strawberry,  common  thistle,  mullein, 
and  the  dandelion. 

Variation  by  Pruning.  —  An  example  of  what  may  be  accom- 
plished in  the  way  of  variation  through  pruning  is  found  in  the 
origination  of  the  Burpee  Bush  Lima  Bean.  Professor  Bailey 
in  Plant  Breeding  relates  the  following  incident:  About  1883  a 
Mr.  Palmer  had  practically  his  entire  crop  of  white  pole  Lima 
beans  destroyed  by  cutworms.  But  one  little  plant  out  of  this 
number,  which  had  been  cut  off  about  an  inch  above  the  grouno\ 
put  out  a  new  growth,  and  finally  developed  three  pods,  each  con- 
taining one  seed.  The  following  year  these  were  planted  and  two 
dwarf  plants  resulted,  from  which  was  finally  developed  the  bush 
Lima  bean  as  we  have  it  to-day.  This  suggests  that  other  plants 
may  likewise  undergo  considerable  variation  under  pruning  and 
care. 

Object  of  Pruning.  —  According  to  Professor  Bailey  the  objects 
to  be  sought  in  pruning  are:  (1)  to  modify  the  vigor  of  the  plant; 
(2)  to  produce  larger  and  better  fruits;  (3)  to  keep  the  plant  within 
manageable  shape  and  limits;  (4)  to  regulate  the  quantity  of 
fruit  borne  by  the  plant,  (5)  to  remove  injured  limbs  or  super- 
fluous parts;  (6)  to  facilitate  spraying  and  harvesting;  (7)  to 
facilitate  cultivation;  (8)  to  make  the  plant  assume  some  desired 
form. 

Method  of  Pruning.  —  A  great  deal  of  injury  is  often  done  to 
trees  by  careless  pruning  and  improper  treatment  of  the  resulting 
wounds.  When  the  limb  is  to  be  removed  entirely,  it  should  be 
sawed  or  cut  off  close  to  the  body  of  the  tree  so  that  no  projecting 
stub  will  be  left  to  prevent  the  proper  healing  of  the  wound. 
When  the  stub  is  left,  it  causes  the  bark  to  die  around  it,  and  in 
course  of  time  when  the  stub  rots  out  a  cavity  will  be  left  in  the 
tree  in  which  insects  or  plant  growths  will  lodge  and  eventually 
injure  the  tree.  When  decayed  places  are  found  in  trees,  it 

PRAC.  AGRICUL.  — 11 


162 


IMPROVEMENT   OF  PLANTS 


is  best  when  possible  to  clean  such  places  thoroughly  and  then 
fill  them  up  with  Portland  cement. 

After  carefully  smoothing  off  the  surface  of  a  wound  left  by 
removing  a  large  limb  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  apply  a  dressing 
of  pine  tar,  grafting  wax,  or  lead  paint.  Where  only  a  portion  of  a 
limb  or  branch  is  to  be  removed,  it  should  be  cut  off  just  above  a 
bud  or  node.  In  each  case  care  must  be  taken  not  to  cut  too  close 
to  the  bud  or  too  far  above  the  bud. 

Perhaps  the  least  injurious  method  of  pruning,  so  far  as  the  plant 
is  concerned,  is  the  prevention  of  the  formation  of  new  branches  or 
shoots  by  pinching  or  rubbing  off  the  buds  which  would  form  such 
growths.  If  the  terminal  bud  is  removed,  more  growth  will  be 
made  in  the  lateral  branches  and  the  plant  will  become  bushy. 

Trimming  or  pinch- 
ing off  the  lateral 
buds  will  throw  the 
growth  into  the 
terminal  bud  mak- 
ing the  central 
stem  elongate  more 
rapidly. 

Another  method 
of  pruning  is  what 
is  known  as  root 
pruning.  This 
tends  to  check  the 
production  of  wood, 
and  when  carried 
out  properly  may 
increase  the  fruitfulness  of  the  tree.  In  healthy  plants  there 
is  usually  an  even  balance  between  leaf  surface  and  root  surface. 
Root  pruning  is  done  by  cutting  in  a  circle  around  the  tree  in 
line  with  the  outer  tips  of  the  branches,  but  this  will  vary  with 
the  particular  plant  under  treatment  and  the  nature  of  the 
season  when  the  pruning  is  attempted. 

In  pruning  the  limbs  of  shade  or  ornamental  trees  it  is  always  best 
to  avoid  stilted  and  unnatural  effects  in  the  shapes  that  are  designed. 
Evergreen  trees  look  much  prettier  when  left  untrimmed. 


Avoid  stilted  effects. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   PLANTS  163 

Time  for  Pruning.  —  When  branches  are  partly  broken  off  by 
storms  or  accident,  they  should  be  removed  at  once.  Dead  or 
diseased  branches  should  also  be  promptly  cut  off  as  soon  as  dis- 
covered, regardless  of  the  season.  General  pruning  should  be 
done  while  the  trees  are  in  the  dormant  state,  either  in  the  fall 
or  spring. 

If  the  pruning  is  done  in  the  spring,  the  wound  heals  readily, 
but  there  is  a  waste  of  the  plant's  energy  in  the  loss  of  the  accu- 
mulated food  supply  by  the  removal  of  the  terminal  portions  of 
the  branches.  Spring  pruning  lessens  wood  production  and  in- 
duces fruitage. 

If  the  pruning  is  done  in  the  fall,  the  wound  does  not  heal  readily 
and  may  become  diseased,  but  on  the  other  hand  many  immature 
branches  that  would  be  killed  by  hard  freezing  in  the  winter  would 
be  removed  and  the  vigor  of  the  plant  improved  thereby.  Late 
fall  or  winter  pruning  always  favors  wood  production. 

In  transplanting  trees,  whether  in  the  fall  or  early  spring,  it 
is  always  best  to  prune  them  rather  closely.  A  great  many  of 
the  roots  are  injured  and  broken  in  digging  up  the  tree,  and 
pruning  of  the  branches  is  absolutely  necessary  to  equalize  its 
leaf  and  root  surface.  It  will  also  reduce  the  amount  of  surface 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wind  so  that  the  tree  will  not  be 
blown  down  or  moved  out  of  place. 

Variation  by  Cross  Fertilization.  —  Many  plants  produce  flowers 
which  are  self-fertilized,  but  the  resulting  offspring  in  many  cases 
is  not  so  strong  and  vigorous  as  when  the  flowers  are  fertilized 
by  the  pollen  of  another  plant.  If  both  plants  are  of  the  same 
kind,  the  resulting  offspring  is  called  a  cross;  but  if  the  plants  are 
of  different  kinds,  as  a  raspberry  and  a  blackberry,  the  offspring  is 
called  a  hybrid.  Hybrids  and  crosses  are  generally  different  from 
both  parents,  but  often  combine  and  emphasize  some  of  the  good 
qualities  of  each.  By  repeating  this  process  a  number  of  times 
with  flowers  of  carefully  selected  individuals  we  may  eventually 
originate  a  new  plant  and  make  it  a  permanent  type.  In  plant- 
ing the  resulting  seed  we  frequently  find  that  the  offspring  do  not 
come  true  to  the  seed  and  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  revert  to 
the  original  or  ancestral  type.  Constant  vigilance  and  enduring 
patience  alone  will  insure  success. 


164  IMPROVEMENT   OF  PLANTS 

Bud  Variation.  — Sometimes  a  certain  branch  of  the  tree  will 
show  marked  and  desirable  characteristics  which  may  be  propa- 
gated by  transferring  its  buds  to  other  kindred  plants.  The 
nectarine  with  its  smooth  skin  as  well  as  its  delicious  flavor  resulted 
from  a  bud  variation  of  the  peach.  Choice  varieties  of  peaches, 
plums,  apricots,  pears,  apples,  roses,  and  many  other  kinds  of 
plants  have  been  secured  through  bud  variation. 

The  Law  of  Heredity.  —  Variation  is  the  starting  point  of  plant 
improvement,  but  the  production  of  any  new  plant  is  of  no  value 
if  its  characteristics  cannot  be  transmitted  to  its  offspring.  The 
general  law  of  heredity  is  that  "  Like  begets  like " ;  for  example, 
corn  produces  corn  and  not  some  other  kind  of  grain.  According 
to  this  law  we  also  expect  the  offspring  to  a  certain  extent  to  show 
the  same  general  and  special  characteristics  as  are  found  in  the 
parent  plant.  Thus  a  bitter  orange  will  produce  bitter  oranges, 
sweet  corn  will  produce  sweet  corn,  bearded  wheat  will  produce 
bearded  wheat.  We  have  already  learned  how  Mr.  Fultz  discovered 
a  few  heads  of  beardless  wheat  in  his  field  of  bearded  wheat  and 
how  by  planting  the  grains  of  these  heads  he  was  able  to  produce 
and  propagate  a  new  variety  of  wheat.  But  for  the  law  of  heredity 
his  discovery  would  have  been  of  no  value  since  the  new  species 
could  have  not  been  propagated. 

Selection.  —  In  going  through  a  field  of  corn  we  find  that  some 
stalks  have  put  all  their  growth  in  the  stalk  and  blades  and  have 
produced  small  ears  of  corn ;  one,  perhaps,  has  only  a  single  large 
ear  while  another  has  produced  two  or  more  large  ears.  In 
some  cases  we  may  find  that  the  ear  has  a  large  cob  and  the 
grains  are  small,  and  in  other  cases  we  may  find  large  grains  and 
small  cobs.  If  we  are  growing  corn  for  the  purpose  of  securing  large 
and  perfect  cobs,  we  select  seed  corn  from  ears  having  large  cobs. 
In  Missouri  and  some  other  States  cobs  are  used  for  making  corn- 
cob pipes,  and  the  cobs  are  more  valuable  than  the  corn  itself. 
Hence  in  the  vicinity  of  these  cob  pipe  factories  farmers  select 
their  seed  corn  with  reference  to  the  cob  only.  By  careful  selec- 
tion from  time  to  time  some  farmers  have  succeeded  in  raising  a 
variety  of  corn  having  large  ears  with  large  cobs  and  fairly  good- 
sized  grains.  In  the  majority  of  cases  farmers  live  in  communities 
where  the  cobs  have  no  particular  commercial  value  and  conse- 


IMPROVEMENT   OF  PLANTS 


165 


quently  select  their  seed  corn  solely  with  reference  to  the  grain  and 
the  stalk.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  select  the  seed  from  corn  in  the 
crib,  as  is  frequently  done,  but  it  is  best  to  go  to  the  field  and  make 
the  selection  from  the  growing  stalks  of  corn.  The  plant  must  be 
considered  as  well  as  its  product.  Not  only  must  we  have  a  good 
ear  of  corn  to  select  our  seed  from,  but  we  must  know  that  the  stalk 
on  which  it  grew  was  able  to  produce  more  than  one  ear  of  the  kind 
that  we  use  for  seed.  If  we  follow  this  plan  from  year  to  year,  the 
yield  per  acre  will  be  increased,  while  the  amount  of  work  spent  in 
cultivation  will  be  no  greater.  Not  only  shall  we  be  able  to  increase 
the  yield,  but  we  shall  be  able  to  produce  new  varieties. 

A  notable  instance  of  the  effect  of  selection  is  seen  in  the  develop- 
ment of  sugar  beets.  Some  of  the  first  beets  that  were  grown 
had  only  approximately 


8  per  cent  of  sugar,  but 
by  selecting  each  year 
the  seed  from  the  sweet- 
est beets  a  new  variety 
was  finally  developed 
which  had  from  18  to  20 
per  cent  of  sugar.  The 

test   is  made   by  insert-    Dia^ram  of  increase  of  sugar  in  beets  produced  by  selection. 

ing  a  trier  in  a  slanting  direction  from  the  shoulder  of  the  beet  and 
extracting  the  core  of  the  root.  The  juice  of  this  core  is  analyzed, 
and  the  beets  showing  the  highest  percentage  of  sugar  are  kept 
for  the  production  of  seed.  After  removing  the  core  the  hole  in 
the  root  is  filled  with  charcoal,  clay,  or  cotton  dipped  in  formalin 
to  prevent  decay.  Sugar  production  from  beets  dates  back  to 
1747  in  Austria  in  the  Old  World,  but  in  the  United  States 
continuous  attempts  have  been  made  since  1863.  California, 
Colorado,  Michigan,  and  Utah  are  our  chief  beet  sugar  producing 
States.  The  total  annual  production  of  beet  sugar  is  about  two 
hundred  thousand  tons. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Plant  a  few  radish  seed  in  two  tomato  cans  of  sand.  Label  the  cans 
A  and  B.  Keep  both  watered  and  supply  B  with  fertilizers.  Note  results 
and  explain. 

2-    Fill  six  match  boxes  or  chalk  boxes  partly  full  with  rich  moist  soil. 


166  IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS 

Plant  the  same  kind  of  seed  in  each  box.  Cover  the  first  box  with  red  glass, 
the  second  with  blue  glass,  the  third  with  green  glass,  the  fourth  with  yellow 
glass,  the  fifth  with  brown  glass,  and  the  sixth  with  clear  window  glass. 
Put  the  boxes  where  they  will  have  free  access  of  sunlight  and  air.  Note 
the  results  and  explain. 

3.  Plant  seed  in  three  boxes.    Place  the  first  one  in  the  cellar  or  in  a  dark 
room,  put  the  second  one  in  a  well-lighted  room,  but  keep  the  plant  in  the 
shade,  and  put  the  third  one  outdoors  where  it  can  have  plenty  of  sunlight 
and  air.     Note  results  in  the  growth  of  the  stems  and  explain.     Also  note 
the  color  of  each  of  the  three  plants  and  explain. 

4.  Make  experiments  in  pruning  on  tomato  plants,  peas,  beans,  and  other 
plants. 

5.  Prepare  grafts  of  various  kinds. 

6.  Illustrate  budding. 

7.  Test  seed  for  vitality  and  purity. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  origin  of  domestic  plants. 

2.  On  what  three  things  does  plant  improvement  depend  ? 

3.  Discuss  the  effect  of  change  in  the  food  supply. 

4.  What  effect  on  the  plant  has  (a)  the  supply  of  light  ?  (6)  the  kind  of 
color  of  light  ? 

5.  Discuss  (a)  heliotropism,  (6)  diaheliotropism. 

6.  Discuss  variation  produced  by  pruning. 

7.  Name  the  objects  of  pruning. 

8.  Describe  the  proper  method  of  pruning. 

9.  Discuss  root  pruning. 

10.  Discuss  the  proper  time  for  pruning. 

11.  Explain  variation  due  to  cross  fertilization. 

12.  Discuss  bud  variation. 

13.  Discuss  the  law  of  heredity. 

14.  Explain  the  method  of  selection. 

REFERENCES 

Improvement  of  Animals  and  Plants,  Davenport. 
Plant  Breeding  —  Experiments  of  Burbank  and  Nilsen,  De  Vries, 
Scientific  Aspects  of  Luther  Burbank,  David  Starr  Jordan. 
Propagation  of  Plants,  Andrew  S.  Fuller. 


XXVII.     FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF  PLANTS 


THE  struggle  for  existence  among  plants  is  no  less  strenuous  than 
it  is  among  animals.  The  friends  and  enemies  of  cultivated  plants 
are  numerous,  but  in  general  they  may  be  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing groups:  (1)  plant  forms,  (2)  animal  forms.  Each  of  these 
may  again  be  subdivided  as  follows: 


L.   Plant  Forms 


2.    Animal  Forms 


I.   Fungi 


II.   Weeds 


I.   Insects 


II.   Birds 


III.    Animals 


Molds 

Bacteria 

Yeast 

Annuals 

Biennials 

Perennials 

Biting  or  Chewing  Insects 

Sucking  Insects 

Predaceous  Insects 

Harmful  Birds 

Beneficial  Birds 

Harmful  Animals 

Beneficial  Animals 


1.   PLANT  FORMS 

Fungi.  —  We  have  all  noticed  the  molds  that  form  on  bread, 
cheese,  fruit,  and  other  articles  when  left  exposed  to  the  air  for 
some  time.  If  we  examine  these  molds  with  a  microscope,  we 
find  that  they  are  very  minute  plants  which  do  not  contain  chloro- 
phyll, and  this  compels  them  to  depend  upon  other  organisms 
for  their  supply  of  food.  This  food  they  may  obtain  in  two  ways: 
either  (1)  directly  from  living  plants  and  animals,  or  (2)  from 
organic  waste  products  or  dead  bodies.  The  former  are  called 
parasites  and  the  latter  saprophytes.  Some  species,  however,  may 
live  either  as  parasites  or  saprophytes  as  necessity  may  demand. 
If  it  were  not  for  the  saprophytes,  the  whole  earth  would  soon 

167 


168 


FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS 


become  covered  with  a  heavy  deposit  of  the  remains  of  the  dead 
plants  and  animals  of  past  generations.  These  little  plants  that 
live  on  other  plants  or  animals  and  obtain  their  nourishment  from 
them  are  called  fungi,  and  each  separate  plant  is  called  a  fungus. 
Because  of  having  no  chlorophyll  they  are  never  green,  but  are 
usually  white,  pink,  yellow,  brown,  or  blue.  Fungi  do  not  propagate 
by  seeds  but  by  spores.  These  are  minute  bodies  or  cells  which 
correspond  to  the  seeds  of  the  higher  plants  and  require  the  same 
conditions  for  germination.  These  spores  reproduce  with  such 
wonderful  rapidity  that  one  plant  may  produce  several  million  in  a 
single  day. 

The  classes  of  fungi  are:   (1)  molds,  (2)  bacteria,  (3)  yeast. 

Molds.  —  If  damp  bread  is  set  away  for  a  few  days  under  a 
glass  cover,  we  notice  that  a  furry  growth  is  forming,  which  bota- 


Mold  growing  on  bread.' 

nists  call  mold.  It  may  also  be  frequently  seen  on  the  surface  of 
canned  fruits,  preserves,  manure  heaps,  etc.  Slices  of  lemon 
when  left  exposed  for  a  few  days  will  also  develop  what  is  generally 
called  blue  mold.  Sometimes  we  may  see  this  same  blue  mold 
on  apples  where  the  skin  has  been  broken  or  bruised.  In  the  course 
of  a  short  time  this  mold  causes  the  apple  to  rot.  This  same  mold, 
when  it  comes  into  contact  with  bruised  or  exposed  places  in  other 
apples,  will  attach  itself  and  cause  decay  to  begin  in  a  very  short 
time.  From  this  we  see  that  diseases  may  be  transmitted  from 


FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS  169 

one  apple  to  another,  and  hence  the  necessity  of  removing  at  once 
all  apples  affected  with  rot.  If  we  apply  some  mold  with  a 
match  or  nail  to  a  clean,  damp  piece  of  bread  and  in  lines  or  rows 
across  the  bread,  we  find  that  in  a  little  while  the  mold  begins  to 
appear  in  these  rows. 

Bacteria  are  very  minute  plants  so  small  that  more  than  1500  of 
them  would  be  required  to  reach  across  an  ordinary  pin  head. 
Some  of  them  are  harmful,  some  produce  decay  and  disease,  while 
others  are  beneficial.  Those  which  cause  diseases  are  often  called 
microbes  or  germs.  Many  bacteria,  however,  are  of  great  value 
to  us  and  assist  in  the  digestion  of  our  food.  Millions  of  bacteria 
are  present  in  the  air  we  breathe,  in  the  water  we  drink,  and  in  the 
food  we  eat.  They  also  inhabit  the  bodies  of  both  plants  and 
animals. 

With  reference  to  structure  bacteria  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes  or  forms:  (1)  spherical  bacteria,  which  are  one-celled  organ- 
isms grouped  in  various  ways;  (2)  rod-shaped  bacteria,  in  which 
the  cells  lie  end  to  end,  either  attached  or  unattached;  (3)  elon- 
gated bacteria,  in  which  each  bacterium  is  an  elongated  cell  and  is 
curved  somewhat  like  a  comma  or  a  spiral. 

Bacteria  reproduce  themselves  by  cell  division  in  fifteen  to 
forty-five  minutes,  and  may  repeat  this  operation  continuously. 
Many  of  them  are  able  to  withstand  long-continued  dry  weather 
or  extreme  cold.  It  is  said  that  the  bacterium  of  typhoid  fever 
may  become  quite  active  again  after  being  frozen  in  ice  for  several 
months.  The  only  safeguards  against  such  bacteria  are  to  boil  all 
the  water  we  drink  and  to  cook  well  all  the  food  we  eat. 

With  reference  to  their  relation  to  animals  and  plants,  bacteria 
may  be  grouped  under  the  following  heads :  (1)  agents  of  fermenta- 
tion, (2)  agents  of  disease,  (3)  agents  of  nitrification. 

Agents  of  Fermentation.  —  These  are  the  bacteria  that  aid  in  the 
manufacture  of  vinegar  and  cause  the  souring  of  milk  and  various 
fruit  juices.  They  also  cause  decomposition  of  organic  matter  in 
the  soil  and  are  very  important  in  relation  to  soil  fertility. 

Agents  of  Disease. —  Among  animals  these  bacteria  produce 
diphtheria,  typhoid  fever,  cholera,  pneumonia,  consumption  or 
tuberculosis,  and  other  kindred  diseases.  Among  plants  they 
produce  many  diseases,  such  as  pear  blight,  apple  blight,  crown  gall 


170 


FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF  PLANTS 


of  peaches,  apples,  etc.     They  are  readily  passed  from  one  plant  or 
animal  to  another. 

Agents  of  Nitrification.  —  The  bacteria  in  the  soil  are  the  chief 
means  of  making  nitrogen  available  to  plants.  One  kind  seem  to 
have  the  power  of  taking  the  free  nitrogen  in  the  soil  air  and  fixing 
it  in  the  form  of  solid  compounds.  Another  kind  gather  nitrogen 
from  the  air  through  their  relation  to  the  roots  of  certain  kinds  of 

plants  known  as  legumes  or 
nitrogen-gatherers  such  as  al- 
falfa, clover,  peas,  beans,  and 
the  like.  The  nitrogen  is 
stored  in  tubercles  on  the 
roots. 

Yeast.  —  We  have  all  learned 
something  about  yeast  from 
observing  its  use  in  making 
bread,  but,  perhaps,  if  we  were 
called  upon  to  say  whether 
yeasts  were  plants  or  animals 
we  should  hardly  know  what 
opinion  to  express.  Upon 
close  examination  we  find 
that  yeasts  are  one-celled 
plants  which  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  certain  kinds  of  fermentation  employed  in  the  making 
of  bread  and  in  the  manufacture  of  beer,  wine,  and  spirits  of  various 
kinds.  In  this  process  the  sugar  is  broken  up  into  alcohol  and 
carbon  dioxide.  The  latter,  expanding  under  the  influence  of 
heat,  puffs  up  the  pores  of  the  dough  and  makes  it  rise.  Were  it 
not  for  the  action  of  this  gas  our  bread  would  be  heavy  and  unfit 
to  eat.  These  same  little  plants  acting  on  the  sugar  in  cider  and 
sweet  wine  set  up  fermentation  and  cause  them  to  sour.  If  we 
place  a  little  yeast  in  sweetened  water,  in  a  little  while  we  notice 
bubbles  of  gas  escaping;  and  if  this  be  collected  and  tested,  we 
find  that  it  is  carbon  dioxide.  Yeast  plants  reproduce  themselves 
by  budding. 

Fungous  Diseases.  —  The  various  diseases  caused  by  the 
presence  of  fungi  are  usually  designated  as  fungous  diseases. 


Nodules  on  roots  of  red  clover. 


FRIENDS  AND  ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS         m 

Some  of  the  most  common  forms  are  the  fire  blight  of  the  pear 
and  apple,  smut,  rust,  rot,  wilt,  potato  scab,  potato  blight,  peach 
leaf  curl,  apple  scab,  club  root,  black  knot,  and  other  kindred 
diseases. 

Fire  Blight.  —  Frequently  we  find  twigs  on  our  apple  or 'pear 
trees  which  look  black  as  if  they  had  been  charred  by  fire  and  the 
leaves  upon  these  twigs  also  are  blackened  and  withered.  This 
disease  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  bacteria  in  the  juicy  part  of 
the  stem  between  the  bark  and  the  hard  wood.  These  bacteria  are 
carried  from  tree  to  tree  at  blossoming  time  by  insects  as  they  flit 
from  flower  to  flower.  As  soon  as  the  diseased  twigs  are  discovered 
they  should  be  cut  off  and  burned  without  delay.  It  is  best  to  cut 
the  twig  off  about  ten  or  twelve  inches  below  the  affected  part,  and 
as  an  additional  precaution  the  pruned  stub  should  be  thoroughly 
disinfected  by  swabbing  with  a  sponge  soaked  in  a  dilute  solution 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  one  part  in  one  thousand  of  water. 

Smut  infests  cereals  and  is  especially  noticeable  on  oats  and 
wheat.  The  smuts  of  these  two  plants,  however,  are  entirely  dis- 
tinct. The  spores  of  the  oat  smut  fungus  are  lodged  under  the 
seed  coat  and  infect  the  young  oat  seedling  when  two  or  three  days 
old.  This  disease  may  be  controlled  by  soaking  the  seed  oats  for  an 
hour  with  formalin  diluted  at  the  rate  of  one  pint  in  fifty  gallons 
of  water.  The  wheat  smut  fungus  gains  entrance  to  the  seed  at  the 
blossoming  time  and  lies  dormant  in  the  kernel  over  winter.  With 
the  growth  of  the  plant  the  fungus  causes  a  smut  of  the  head. 
Formalin  is  not  effective  except  in  strengths  which  would  kill  the 
germ  of  the  grain.  A  hot-water  method  of  treatment  has  been 
devised. 

Rust.  —  One  of  the  most  common  forms  of  this  disease  is  what 
is  known  as  apple  rust.  This  fungus  uses  the  red  cedar  as  its 
winter  host  and  causes  the  so-called  cedar  apple.  In  wet  weather 
jellylike  tentacles  or  arms  form  on  these  cedar  apples  which 
contain  millions  and  millions  of  spores.  In  dry  weather  they 
float  off  in  the  form  of  a  dust  or  powder  through  the  air  and  lodge 
on  the  foliage  of  the  apple  tree.  In  a  short  time  the  leaves  become 
covered  with  orange-colored  spots  and  wither  away.  The  only 
satisfactory  remedy  is  to  remove  all  cedar  trees  from  the  vicinity 
of  the  orchard. 


172  FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS 

The  Brown  Rot  of  Stone  Fruits.  —  This  is  a  common  disease  of 
the  plum,  peach,  and  cherry  which  spreads  very  rapidly  in  warm, 
moist  weather.  It  begins  as  a  small  dark  brown  spot  on  the  par- 
tially ripened  fruit  and  gradually  spreads  all  over  it.  The  fruit 
finally  dries  up  and  forms  a  mummy  which  generally  hangs  on  the 
tree  all  winter.  These  mummies  contain  millions  of  the  dried 
spores  which,  if  not  destroyed,  will  affect  the  fruit  the  following 
year.  They  should  be  shaken  off  and  destroyed  by  burning  or 
fed  to  hogs.  The  tree  should  be  sprayed  in  summer  with  self- 
boiled  lime-sulphur  made  of  8  pounds  of  stone  lime,  8  pounds  of 
sulphur  flour,  and  50  gallons  of  water. 

The  Black  Rot  of  Grapes.  —  This  disease  begins  as  a  purplish 
brown  spot  and  gradually  spreads  over  the  grape,  which  finally 
shrivels  up  and  turns  black.  The  Bordeaux  solution  is  effec- 
tively used,  but  because  of  its  staining  the  fruit  the  following 
mixture  is  preferable  for  spraying  nearly  mature  fruit: 

Copper  Carbonate  .  .  .  .  5  oz. 
Strong  Ammonia  ....  3  pt. 
Water 50  gal. 

At  first  use  only  water  enough  to  make  a  thin  paste,  then  put  in 
•the  ammonia  and  mix  thoroughly  before  adding  the  remainder 
of  the  water. 

The  Bordeaux  solution  is  made  up  as  follows: 

Copper  Sulphate  —  Blue  vitriol  .  5  Ib. 
Unslaked  Lime  .  .  .  .  5  Ib. 
Water  .  .  .  .  .  .50  gal. 

Bitter  Rot  of  Apples.  —  This  is  a  disease  that  usually  does  not 
affect  the  fruit  until  it  is  nearly  ripe  or  fully  matured.  It  generally 
appears  as  small  brown  spots  which  gradually  unite  and  cause  the 
fruit  to  rot.  All  apples  affected  with  it  should  be  destroyed.  Its 
ravages  may  be  checked  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Apple  Scab.  —  This  disease  attacks  both  fruit  and  foliage,  form- 
ing sooty  spots  on  the  leaves  and  brownish  scabs  on  the  fruit. 
Use  the  same  remedies  recommended  for  black  rot. 

Peach  Leaf  Curl.  —  This  is  a  disease  which  causes  the  leaves 
to  curl  and  twist  up  until  they  turn  dark  and  fall  off.  The  fruit 
shrivels  up  and  cannot  be  used.  The  damage  resulting  from  it 


FRIENDS  AND   ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS  173 

annually  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  S3, 000, 000.  It 
may  be  checked  by  spraying  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  before 
the  buds  open. 

Wilt  is  a  disease  caused  by  a  soil  fungus  which  enters  the  plant 
through  the  roots  and  forces  its  way  upward  into  the  stem,  and 
chokes  the  ducts  or  passages  and  shuts  off  the  flow  of  the  sap  from 
the  roots  to  the  leaves  and  branches  of  the  plants.  The  water 
supply  being  shut  off  from  the  leaves,  they  soon  wilt  and  wither 
away.  The  plants  most  commonly  attacked  by  wilt  are  cotton, 
flax,  tobacco,  and  cowpeas.  It  may  be  remedied  by  frequent 
crop  rotations  and  by  selecting  wilt-resistant  varieties  of  these 
plants. 

Potato  Scab.  —  Potatoes  are  often  covered  with  a  rough  coating 
of  scabs  caused  by  a  fungous  growth  which  starts  on  the  surface. 
It  may  be  checked  by  soaking  the  seed  potatoes  in  a  weak  solution 
of  formalin,  one  half  pint  with  fifteen  gallons  of  water,  for  two 
hours  or  more.  The  same  solution  may  be  used  several  times. 
Treated  potatoes  must  be  planted  in  clean  soil,  that  is,  soil  free 
from  scabby  tubers  from  previous  years. 

Potato  Blight  is  a  disease  which  attacks  the  leaves  of  the  potato 
and  rapidly  extends  its  ravages  until  it  completely  destroys  the 
plant.  Its  presence  is  generally  heralded  by  the  appearance  of 
brown  spots  upon  the  margin  or  body  of  the  leaf.  It  also  causes 
a  rot  of  tubers.  The  best  remedy  is  spraying  with  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  to  which  a  little  Paris  green  has  been  added. 

Club  Root  is  a  disease  of  the  cauliflower,  cabbage,  and  turnip 
which  causes  an  undue  enlargement  of  the  roots  of  each  of  these 
plants.  It  may  be  prevented  by  a  liberal  addition  of  lime  to  the 
soil. 

Black  Knot  is  a  contagious  disease  which  attacks  the  branches 
and  twigs  of  both  sour  cherry  trees  and  plum  trees  and  brings  on 
decay  and  death.  The  most  satisfactory  remedy  is  to  cut  out  all 
branches  affected  and  burn  them  in  January  before  the  growing 
season  commences. 

Weeds.  —  In  a  general  way  we  all  have  the  same  idea  of  what 
is  meant  by  weeds,  but  sometimes  we  find  it  hard  to  make  a 
proper  distinction  between  them  and  ordinary  plants.  All  plants 
out  of  place  or  that  persist  in  growing  where  they  are  not  desired 


174 


FRIENDS   AND    ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS 


are  classed  as  weeds.  Thus  our  ordinary  white  clover  when  grow- 
ing upon  our  lawns  might  be  classed  as  grass,  but  when  found  grow- 
ing in  the  garden  in  our  onion  or  lettuce  bed  would  be  classed 
as  a  weed.  Many  of  our  present  cultivated  plants  were  once 
wild  plants,  but  have  been  improved  by  cultivation  and  selection 
until  they  have  been  brought  up  to  their  present  state  of  perfec- 
tion. It  is  also  possible  that  many  other  plants  which  we  now 
regard  as  useless  weeds  may  be  found  to  have  some  useful  property 

and  may  sometime  be  classed 
among  our  valuable  cultivated 
crops. 


Burdock. 


Cocklebur. 


Good  farming  involves  the  control  of  weeds.  Some  of  the  most 
effective  means  of  control  are:  good  rotation  courses;  clean  til- 
lage; cleaning  up  of  waste  places  in  which  weeds  breed;  care  in  the 
choice  of  clean  seed;  care  to  see  that  the  manure  does  not  carry 
seeds;  alertness  to  recognize  new  weeds  when  they  begin  to  in- 
vade the  neighborhood. 

Why  we  should  prevent  the  Growth  of  Weeds.  —  There  are  many 
reasons  why  we  should  not  allow  weeds  to  obtain  a  foothold 
among  our  crops;  some  of  them  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows: 


FRIENDS  AND   ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS  175 

1.  Their  numbers  will  increase  from  year  to  year,  and  much 
labor  will  be  required  to  eradicate  them. 

2.  They  appropriate  the  nourishment  of  the  soil  and  diminish 
the  supply  needed  by  our  cultivated  plants. 

3.  As   they   make    a   rapid    growth   they   shade   the    ground 
and  may  shut  out  warmth  and  sunlight  much  needed  by  the 
plant. 

4.  When   abundant  they  shut  off  the  ventilation  and  soon 
smother  out  the  smaller  plants. 

5.  They  rapidly  deplete  the  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil, 
which  should  be  reserved  for  the  cultivated  crop. 


Canada  thistle.  Sow  thistle. 

6.  It  is  thought  that  many  diseases  of  both  plants  and  animals 
are  caused  by  the  presence  of  luxuriant  growths  of  certain  obnox- 
ious weeds. 

7.  Weeds    are    frequently    injurious    and    even    poisonous    to 
stock.     Both  cattle  and  horses  are  frequently  killed  by  eating 
the  loco  weed,  while  every  one  is  familiar  with  the  fact  that  wild 


176  FRIENDS  AND   ENEMIES   OF  PLANTS 

onions  and  ragweeds  when  eaten  by  cows  taint  their  milk  and 
make  it  undesirable  for  use. 

8.  Weeds   generally   afford   a  natural    harbor   for   dangerous 
reptiles  and  injurious  insects,  which  have  their  breeding  grounds 
in  such  places. 

9.  Weeds  shade  our  fences  and  hasten  their  decay. 

10.  Weeds  suggest  carelessness  and  neglect. 

Are  Weeds  ever  Beneficial? — If  your  instructor  should   ask  you 
whether  weeds  were  ever  beneficial,  perhaps  you  would  not  hesi- 


Russian  thistle.  Quack  grass. 

tate  to  say  no,  but  your  answer  would  not  be  strictly  correct. 
Sometimes  farmers  find  it  of  some  advantage  to  let  a  field  rest 
and  grow  up  in  weeds  under  certain  conditions.  Before  the 
weeds  mature  or  get  too  large  they  are  plowed  under  and  thus 
form  a  rich  manure  for  the  soil.  The  weeds  also  shade  the  ground 
and  prevent  it  from  baking. 

Kinds  of  Weeds. —  There  are  three  general  classes  of  weeds: 
(a)   annuals,  (b)  biennials,  (c)  perennials. 


FRIENDS  AND   ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS 


177 


Annuals  grow,  mature  their  seed,  and  die  within  a  year.  Among 
these  are  the  ragweed,  cocklebur,  horseweed,  burgrass,  dog's 
fennel,  wild  lettuce,  Russian  thistle,  pigeon  grass,  etc.  Annuals 
may  be  held  in  check  by  frequent  tillage  and  by  preventing 
them  from  seeding.  In  an  open,  uncultivated  field  they  may  be 
mowed  or  pastured  with  sheep.  They  follow  tilled  crops. 

Biennials  do  not  finish  their  growth  and  mature  their  seed 
until  the  end  of  their  second  year.  The  most  troublesome 
ones  are  the  wild  carrot,  the  bull  thistle, 
and  the  burdock.  They  can  be  checked  by 
grubbing  them  out  or  plowing  them  under 
from  time  to  time. 

Perennials  grow  from  year  to  year,  and 
many  of  them  are  reproduced  both  by  run- 
ning roots  and  by  seeds.  These  include 


Oxeye  daisy. 


Long-leaved  plantain. 


quack  grass,  sow  thistle,  Canada  thistle,  dandelion,  horse  nettle 
or  sand  brier,  nut  grass,  white  daisy,  English  plaintain,  sour 
weed,  wild  onion,  etc. 

Perennials  are  very  difficult  to  eradicate,  and  they  have  to  be 
fought  in  many  ways.  Constant  and  clean  cultivation  will  do 
much  to  subdue  them,  but  sometimes  farmers  have  to  smother 
out  the  weeds  by  sowing  some  crop  that  makes  a  quick,  heavy, 
luxuriant  growth.  Cowpeas  are  often  used  for  this  purpose  and 
prove  quite  satisfactory.  These  weeds  must  not  be  given  a  start. 

PRAC.  AGRICUL. 12 


178  FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF  PLANTS 

EXERCISES 

1 .  Secure  and  name  ten  common  weeds  of  your  locality.     Tell  where  you 
found  them. 

2.  Examine  the  fruit  trees  closely  and  report  what  diseases  are  found. 

3.  Secure  specimens  of  mold,  and  examine  them  with  a  microscope. 

4.  Secure  specimens  of  yeast  and  examine  them  with  the  microscope. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Into  what  two  great  classes  may  the  enemies  of  cultivated  plants  be 
divided? 

2.  Give  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  first  class,  and  also  of  the 
second  class. 

3.  Describe  the  fungi  in  general. 

4.  Discuss  (a)  mold,  (6)  yeast,  (c)  bacteria. 

5.  Discuss  (a)  agents  of  fermentation,  (6)  agents  of  disease,  (c)  agents  of 
nitrification. 

6.  Describe  yeast. 

7.  Discuss  (a)  fire  blight,  (6)  smuts,  (c)  rust. 

8.  Discuss  (a)  brown  rot,  (6)  black  rot,  (c)  bitter  rot. 

9.  Describe  (a)  the  apple  scab,  (6)  the  peach  leaf  curl,  (c)  the  wilt. 

10.  Discuss  (a)  potato  scab,  (6)  potato  blight. 

11.  Describe  (a)  club  root,  (6)  black  knot. 

12.  Discuss  weeds. 

13.  Why  should  we  check  their  growth? 

14.  Are  weeds  ever  beneficial  ? 

15.  Name  the  three  general  classes  of  weeds. 

16.  Describe  some  of  the  special  weed  forms. 

17.  If  the  loss  caused  by  weeds  is  fifteen  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre, 
what  will  be  the  loss  on  twenty  acres  if  corn  is  worth  forty  cents  per  bushel  ? 

18.  If  the'  corn  is  too  thick  in  a  field,  is  it  not  its  own  worst  weed  ? 

19.  What  weeds  are  most  common  on  the  farms  near  the  school  ?     Ask 
farmers  what  they  are  doing  to  control  them.     Find  which  ones  have  few 
weeds  in  their  crops.     Are  they  the  most  thrifty  farmers  ?     Why  have  they 
fewer  weeds  ? 

REFERENCES 

Weeds:  and  How  to  Kill  Them,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  28. 

Weeds  Used  in  Medicine,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  188. 

Fungicides  and  Their  Use  in  Preventing  Diseases  of  Fruits,  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  243. 

The  Prevention  of  Wheat  Smut  and  Loose  Smut  of  Oats,  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  250. 

Potato  Diseases  and  Treatment,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  91. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  L.  H.  Bailey. 


XXVIII.    FRIENDS  AND  ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS— Continued 

2.   ANIMAL  FORMS 

Insects.  —  If  you  were  called  upon  to  name  some  animals  that 
are  classed  as  insects,  you  might  mention  ants,  flies,  bugs,  beetles, 
butterflies,  and  moths ;  but  at  the  same  time  you  might  wonder 
why  they  are  all  grouped  together  when  some  of  them  differ  so  much 
from  one  another.  A  little  study  will  show  us,  however,  that 
they  have  this  much  in  common.  They  have  six  legs,  and  their 
bodies  are  divided  into  three  parts  —  the  head,  the  thorax,  and 
the  abdomen.  They  breathe  through  tiny  holes,  called  spiracles, 
arranged  in  a  row  along  each  side  of  the  abdomen.  On  the  head 
are  found  the  mouth,  eyes,  and  the  antennae. 

Such  insects  as  the  butterflies,  bees,  houseflies,  and  beetles,  pass 
through  four  stages  before  they  reach  maturity :  the  first  is  the  egg; 
the  second,  the  larva;  the  third,  the  pupa;  and  the  fourth  is  the 
adult,  or  imago. 

The  tiny  egg  is  deposited  in  some  safe  place  where,  after  a  certain 
time  it  hatches  out  into  the  larva  state,  in  which  it  becomes  a  worm- 
like  creature  so  different  from  the  original  insect  that  we  should 
hardly  suspect  that  there  was  any  relationship  between  them. 
This  is  also  frequently  called  the  grub  or  caterpillar  stage.  While 
in  this  state  they  eat  almost  continually  and  do  a  great  deal  of 
damage.  Finally  it  enters  the  pupa  stage  and  eats  nothing.  It 
goes  into  a  kind  of  sleep,  and  while  in  this  condition  it  gradually 
changes  into  a  fully  developed  insect.  This  last  stage  we  call  the 
imago.  Some  insects  do  not  pass  through  all  these  stages,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  locusts  and  grasshoppers. 

Insects  do  a  great  deal  of  injury,  but  we  must  not  regard  all  of 
them  as  troublesome  pests.  The  honeybees  furnish  us  with  food 
in  the  form  of  honey,  the  silkworm  supplies  us  with  silk  and  mate- 
rials for  clothing,  while  some  insects  do  us  valuable  service  by 
carrying  pollen  from  one  flower  to  another  and  causing  flowers  to 
b'j  fertile  which  might  otherwise  remain  sterile. 

179 


180  FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS 

Groups  of  Insects.  — So  far  as  the  insect  pests  of  agriculture  are 
concerned  we  may  make  two  general  groups:  (1)  biting  and  chew- 
ing insects,  (2)  sucking  insects. 

Biting  Insects. —  This  group  includes  all  insects  in  which  their 
mouth  parts  are  formed  for  biting  and  chewing.  They  bite  off, 
chew,  and  swallow  the  leaves  or  other  portions  of  the  plant  upon 
which  they  happen  to  feed.  Common  examples  of  this  class  are 
to  be  found  in  caterpillars,  grasshoppers,  beetles,  cotton  boll 
weevil,  etc.  On  account  of  the  manner  in  which  these  insects 
secure  their  food  they  may  be  killed  by  spraying  the  plants  with 
poisonous  solutions. 

An  effective  spray  may  be  made  as  follows: 

Scheele's  Green  .  .  .  .  1  Ib. 
Quicklime  .  .  .  .  .  1  Ib. 
Water 100-300  gal. 

In  applying  this  solution  it  must  be  kept  well  stirred.  Paris  green 
may  be  substituted  for  Scheele's  green,  but  it  is  more  costly  and 
often  burns  the  foliage  of  plants. 

Another  good  spraying  solution  is  prepared  in  this  way: 

Arsenate  of  soda    .         .         .  4  oz. 

Acetate  of  lead       .         .         .         .     11  oz. 

Glucose 2  qt. 

Water    .         .         .         .         .     25-100  gal. 

Dissolve  the  acetate  of  lead  in  a  bucket  of  warm  water  and  mix  it 
with  the  arsenate  of  soda,  which  has  been  previously  dissolved  in 
another  bucket  of  warm  water.  Use  wooden  buckets  because  these 
chemicals  will  corrode  vessels  made  of  tin  or  other  metal. 

Sucking  Insects. —  This  group  includes  all  insects  in  which  the 
mouth  parts  are  adapted  for  sucking  rather  than  for  biting.  Since 
these  insects  secure  their  food  from  the  juices  of  the  plant  and  not 
from  the  surface,  it  is  evident  that  spraying  the  plant  with  poison 
would  do  no  good.  In  this  group  are  the  squash  bug,  chinch  bug, 
green  bug,  plant  lice,  mosquitoes,  flies,  San  Jose  scale,  and  other 
scale  insects. 

The  only  sprays  that  are  effective  with  this  class  of  insects  are 
those  that  corrode  the  body  of  the  insect,  and  those  that  penetrate 
the  breathing  pores  of  the  insect  and  produce  suffocation. 


FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS 
The  following  emulsion  is  highly  recommended: 


181 


Soap 

Soft  water 
Kerosene 


1  gal. 

2  gal. 


Shave  the  soap  into  the  soft  water  and  bring  to  the  boiling 
point.  When  the  soap  is  dissolved,  pour  in  the  oil  and  agitate 
vigorously  until  a  white,  creamy  emulsion  is  formed.  When 
ready  to  use,  add  seventeen  gallons  of  water  and  spray  the  solu- 
tion on  the  bodies  of  the  insects  to  be  killed. 

Sprays  of  tobacco,  tea,  pennyroyal,  or  volatile  oils  sometimes  are 
found  very  satisfactory.  In  other  cases  tobacco  smoke  and  fumes 
or  poisonous  gases  are  found  effective.  Fumes  from  hydrocyanic 
acid  are  frequently  used  in  treating  San  Jose  scale.  In  bins  and 
seed  chests  carbon  bisulphide  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  if 
these  receptacles  are  air-tight,  but  this  liquid  is  very  inflammable 
and  must  be  kept  away  from  the  fire.  Ant  beds  may  be  broken 
up  by  repeated  applications 
of  carbon  bisulphide  and 
gasolene.  Bear  in  mind 
that  gasoline  is  very  de- 
structive to  all  kinds  of 
vegetation  with  which  it 
comes  in  contact. 

Soft-bodied  insects  may 
frequently  be  killed  by  ap- 
plications of  lime  or  wood 
ashes,  which  should  be  care- 
fully dusted  over  the  in- 
fected plants.  Sprays  of 
very  dilute  carbolic  acid  are 
also  helpful  in  such  cases. 

Predaceous  and  Parasitic 
Insects.  —  These     are     in- 
sects that  prey  upon  other  Cabba?e  butterf]y  and  larva 
insects.     Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  ladybugs,  which 
feed  on  plant  lice  and  scale  insects.     The  Chinese  ladybugs  and 
the  Australian  ladybug  have  been  used  largely  in  California  to 


182  FRIENDS  AND   ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS 

check  the  ravages  of  the  San  Jose  scale.  Tiger  and  ground  beetles 
devour  hundreds  of  cutworms  and  caterpillars.  Dragon  flies  live 
in  the  vicinity  of  ponds  and  streams  and  feed  on  gnats,  flies,  and 
mosquitoes.  Some  of  the  ichneumon  flies  kill  fruit-tree  borers, 
tentworm  caterpillars,  and  cabbage  worms.  One  variety  has 
been  found  in  Spain  that  feeds  on  the  codling  moth. 

The  much  despised  red  wasps  and  yellow  jackets  prey  upon  flies 
and  the  larvae  of  the  boll  weevil.  Some  varieties  of  ants  also  prey 
upon  the  boll  weevil. 

The  Plum  Curculio.  —  The  adult  is  one  of  the  snout  beetles ; 
it  deposits  its  egg  in  the  fruit  and  then  surrounds  each  egg  with  a 
crescent-shaped  cut  to  check  the  growth  of  the  fruit  so  that  the 
egg  will  not  be  crushed.  The  larva  eats  its  way  deep  into  the  fruit 
and  causes  it  to  fall  to  the  ground.  The  larva  then  bores  into  the 
earth,  where  it  remains  for  a  few  days,  when  it  comes  forth  as 
an  adult  weevil,  or  beetle  that  lives  over  the  winter.  At  this 
stage  the  beetles  may  be  killed  by  spraying  the  trees  with  poison. 
Farmers  also  spread  sheets  of  canvas  under  the  affected  trees 
early  in  the  morning,  and  by  shaking  or  jarring  the  trees  vigorously 
most  of  the  beetles  will  fall  off,  and  then  may  be  collected  and 
burned  with  a  little  straw. 

The  potato  beetle  is  a  striped  beetle  which  lays  its  eggs  on  the 
potato  plants.  In  a  short  time  they  hatch  into  reddish  colored 
grubs,  which  immediately  begin  devouring  every  potato  leaf  within 
their  reach.  It  is  estimated  that  each  female  will  produce  six 
hundred  to  one  thousand  eggs,  and  these  develop  into  full-grown 
beetles  within  five  or  six  weeks.  Two  or  three  broods  are 
hatched  every  season,  and  when  they  finish  their  depredations 
there  is  usually  but  little  left  of  the  potato  plant.  Spraying 
with  poison  and  hand  picking  seem  to  be  the  only  satisfactory 
remedies. 

The  chinch  bug  is  a  small,  insignificant  looking  bug  which  attacks 
wheat  and  corn  principally.  Chinch  bugs  usually  begin  on  the 
wheat,  oats,  and  other  small  grain,  and  after  these  are  harvested 
they  begin  to  attack  the  growing  corn.  Several  remedies  have 
been  proposed,  but  nothing  satisfactory  has  been  found  thus  far. 
Some  farmers  burn  over  their  stubble  fields  and  burn  up  all  trash 
that  might  afford  shelter  to  the  bugs.  If  proper  precautions  are 


FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF  PLANTS  183 

taken  to  destroy  all  rubbish  in  which  the  bugs  hide  away  to  pass 
the  winter,  much  will  be  accomplished  towards  getting  rid  of  them. 
Frequent  change  of  crops  will  also  be  .helpful. 

The  cankerworm  is  a  common  measuring  worm.  It  is  usually 
green  or  brown  and  is  the  larva  of  a  moth.,  Cankerworms  eat 
ravenously,  and  in  a  short  time  can  clean  up  the  foliage  of  every 
tree  in  the  orchard.  The  tree  may  be  protected  against  the  female 
moth  by  wrapping  a  piece  of  gummy  or  sticky  paper  or  cloth 
closely  around  its  trunk. 

The  army  worm  is  the  larva  of  a  common  moth  and  is 
one  of  our  most  destructive  pests.  These  worms  are  called  army 
worms  because  they  move  about  in  vast  numbers  like*  a  destroying 
army,  devouring  all  vegetation  that  lies  in  their  path.  They  are 
hard  to  combat  successfully  when  they  make  their  appearance  in  a 
field.  Farmers  frequently  plow  an  extra  deep  furrow  around  the 
field  in  order  to  trap  them  in  their  onward  march.  This  ditch 
is  then  partially  filled  with  straw  and  a  torch  is  applied.  As  the 
straw  burns  a  great  many  of  the  army  worms  that  are  imprisoned 
in  the  ditch  are  burned  and  destroyed. 

The  Tent  Caterpillar. — The  apple-tree  tent  caterpillar  is  a 
destructive  pest  with  which  every  farmer  is  more  or  less  familiar. 
The  parent  moth  lays  her  eggs  in  the  form  of  a  girdle  around  a 
twig  in  the  summer,  and  in  the  following  spring  these  hatch  into 
greedy  caterpillars  which  strip  the  leaves  of  the  tree  as  they  move 
from  twig  to  twig.  They  spin  a  web  or  tent,  generally  in  the  forks 
of  some  branch,  and  this  affords  them  a  shelter  at  night. 

They  may  be  held  in  check  by  our  destroying  their  eggs  in  the 
winter,  by  burning  their  nests,  by  spraying  the  foliage  with  ar- 
senate  of  lead  or  Paris  green,  and  by  encouraging  the  residence  of 
cuckoos,  blue  jays,  crows,  orioles,  and  other  birds  that  feed  upon 
these  caterpillars. 

The  tobacco  worm  is  the  larva  of  the  sphinx  moth,  and  is  very 
destructive  in  its  ravages  on  the  tobacco  plant.  The  worms  are 
usually  picked  by  hand  from  the  plants  and  destroyed.  The  moth 
is  very  fond  of  the  blossoms  of  the  Jimson  weed,  and  if  a  little 
cobalt  mixed  with  sirup  is  placed  in  such  blossoms  the  moth  is 
easily  poisoned. 

The  currant  worm  is  the  larva  of  the  sawfly.      The  larvae  hatch 


184 


FRIENDS  AND   ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS 


out  from  eggs  laid  end  to  end  along  the  veins  on  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves  of  the  currant  bush. 

The  cotton-boll  weevil  is  a  pest  that  came  originally  from  Mexico 
to  Texas,  and  from  this  State  it  has  worked  its  way  into  Louisiana, 
Texas,  Arkansas,  and  Oklahoma.  It  is  a  small,  reddish  brown 
snout  beetle  which  breeds  in  the  cotton  pod  and  feeds  upon  the 
plant.  The  female  beetle  deposits  her  eggs  in  a  cotton  square  or  in 
a  boll.  In  a  short  time  the  eggs  hatch  out  into  grubs,  which  in  the 
course  of  a  month  become  mature  beetles.  It  is  estimated  that 
each  beetle  will  produce  about  one  hundred  eggs  during  her  life- 
time. All  cotton  squares  affected  by  them  usually  drop  to  the 
ground,  while  the  bolls  become  stunted  and  stop  growing.  The 
ravages  of  the  boll  weevil  may  in  some  measure  be  checked  by 
burning  up  all  trash  and  stalks  of  the  field  in  the  fall  so  that  the 
weevils  will  be  deprived  of  a  winter  home.  It  is  also  advisable  to 
secure  a  weevil-resistant  variety  of  cotton  which  should  be  planted 
early  and  should  be  well  cultivated.  Poisoning  with  Paris  green 
has  been  tried,  but  has  not  been  found  satisfactory.  The  Guate- 
malan ant  has  been  introduced  into  Texas  with  the  hope  that  it  might 
destroy  the  boll  weevils,  but  the  results  have  been  disappointing. 
Certain  native  ants  are  much  more  efficient  enemies  of  the  weevil. 
Cutworms  are  the  larvae  of  several  different  kinds  of  moths, 
which  usually  feed  at  night.  They  cut  tender  young  plants  off 

at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
They  may  be  brown,  gray,  or 
green.  Early  and  frequent  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil  will  reduce 
their  number  largely.  January 
plowing  is  especially  recom- 
mended in  the  Southern  States. 
Rotation  of  crops  will  also  be 
found  helpful. 

The   codling  moth  is  a  pest 
that  preys  upon  our  apples  and 

Larva  of  codling  moth.  CaUS6S     thg     loSS    °f     milH°nS     °f 

dollars  annually  to  our 'farmers. 

The  moth  lays  her  eggs  on  the  young  apple  and  on  the  leaves  of 
the   tree.     These  eggs  hatch  into  worms;  which   eat   their  way 


FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS  185 

into  the  fruit  and  cause  poor,  wormy  apples.  To  keep  this  pest 
in  check,  spray  the  trees  with  arsenate  of  lead,  three  pounds  to 
fifty  gallons  of  water,  once  just  after  the  petals  fall,  once  again 
in  ten  days,  and  a  third  time  three  weeks  later.  Never  spray 
with  a  poison  while  the  tree  is  in  bloom. 

The  Hessian  fly  is  a  small  insect  that  lives  on  the  stems  of  spring 
and  winter  wheat  an  1  causes  great  damage.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
burn  over  the  stubble  after  harvest  and  to  destroy  all  trash  and 
rubbish.  As  a  further  protection  against  the  Hessian  fly  it  is  also 
generally  advisable  to  delay  sowing  fall  wheat  until  the  weather 
becomes  cool  enough  for  frost. 

The  San  Jose  scale  is  a  small  insect,  but  it  is  one  of  the  most 
destructive  pests  of  fruit  trees  now  known.  The  adult  females 
are  much  smaller  than  a  pin  head,  but  they  occur  in  such  large 
numbers  that  they  soon  cover  the  bark  of  the  tree  and  cause 
death.  Sprays  of  kerosene  and  fumigation  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas  are  used  to  check  this  insect.  A  solution  made  by 
boiling  lime,  salt,  and  sulphur  together  is  likewise  said  to  be  a 
very  good  remedy.  It  is  generally  a  good  plan  to  cut  down  and 
burn  all  trees  on  which  the  scale  makes  its  appearance.  In  some 
States  this  has  been  made  obligatory  upon  fruit  growers,  and  heavy 
penalties  have  been  prescribed  against  those  who  fail  to  observe 
and  keep  the  law. 

Birds. —  Many  farmers  unjustly  look  upon  birds  as  a  nuisance 
and  do  not  stop  to  consider  the  great  service  they  render  man. 
Birds  are  being  killed  by  the  hundreds  every  year,  not  only  to 
gratify  the  whims  of  inconsiderate  hunters,  but  also  to  supply 
the  demands  of  milliners,  who  use  them  as  decoration  for 
ladies'  hats,  etc.  Boys  ruthlessly  collect  and  destroy  hundreds 
of  eggs  every  year,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  estimate  the 
number  of  young  birds  that  are  caught  and  devoured  by  cats. 

Sometimes  we  hear  the  complaint  that  birds  destroy  a  great 
deal  of  fruit,  and  in  some  instances  it  may  be  true ;  but  the  reason 
and  the  remedy  are  not  hard  to  find.  It  is  usually  during  a  dry 
season  that  birds  attack  fruit  the  most,  and  then  it  is  only  the  juice 
of  the  fruit  that  they  seek  as  a  substitute  for  water.  If  we  only 
take  the  precaution  to  place  cans  or  pails  of  water  in  several 
places  convenient  to  the  birds,  and  give  them  some  of  the  bread 


186  Jb'KlENDS  AND  ENEMIES  OF  PLANTS 

crumbs  and  scraps  that  usually  are  thrown  away,  we  may  find 
that  the  birds  will  destroy  but  very  little  of  our  fruit.  On  the 
other  hand,  birds  feed  largely  on  insects  and  thus  help  to  check 
the  hordes  which  would  otherwise  destroy  the  fruit  crops. 

The  birds  are  our  friends,  and  we  should  use  every  possible  means 
to  show  our  appreciation  of  them.  When  trees  are  not  at  hand 
in  which  they  may  nest,  we  should  provide  suitable  bird  houses  and 
shelters  for  them.  The  tin  cans  which  so  often  go  to  the  waste 
heap,  when  nailed  on  boards  or  the  side  of  the  barn  make  very 
good  and  inexpensive  bird  houses. 

Harmful  Birds.  —  There  are  only  a  few  birds  that  may  be  classed 
as  harmful  or  injurious.  The  sharp-shinned  hawk,  goshawk, 
Cooper's  hawk,  and  duck  hawk  destroy  the  insect-eating  and 
the  weed  seed-eating  birds  and  for  that  reason  may  be  classed  as 
harmful.  The  first  two  also  prey  upon  poultry.  The  crow  is 
sometimes  reckoned  as  being  harmful  on  account  of  its  pulling  up 
and  eating  corn  after  it  has  been  planted;  but  crows  destroy  so 
many  mice,  worms,  and  grasshoppers  that  they  more  than  make 
good  any  loss  that  they  inflict  on  the  farmer.  The  English  spar- 
rows are  also  very  injurious  on  account  of  their  having  adopted  a 
vegetable  diet  in  this  country. 

Beneficial  Birds.  — Among  the  birds  that  are  helpful  to  the  farmer 
are  the  swallows,  woodpeckers,  cuckoos,  wrens,  blackbirds,  blue- 
birds, redbirds,  the  Baltimore  oriole,  the  mocking  bird,  and  the 
partridge.  The  swallows  prey  upon  ants,  flies,  beetles,  and  other 
insects.  Cuckoos  and  wrens  eat  grasshoppers,  caterpillars,  bugs, 
and  flies.  The  bluebird  feeds  on  weed  seed  in  the  winter  and  on 
grasshoppers  and  caterpillars  in  the  summer.  Woodpeckers  eat 
a  great  many  wood-boring  larvae  or  worms,  and  also  many  ants 
and  other  kind  of  insects  that  burrow  into  the  trunks  of  trees. 
The  majority  of  birds  do  us  a  great  deal  of  good  by  devouring 
weed  seed  in  the  winter  time  and  by  devouring  many  injurious 
insects  in  the  warm  season  of  the  year.  Teachers  should  set  aside 
a  part  of  Arbor  Day  each  year  as  Bird  Day,  and  have  suitable 
exercises  on  this  occasion  calling  attention  to  the  value  of  birds 
and  the  importance  of  protecting  them.  Organize  a  local  Audubon 
Society  and  start  a  crusade  against  the  merciless  and  useless 
slaughter  of  birds.  Literature  suitable  for  this  purpose  may  be 


FRIENDS  AND   ENEMIES   OF  PLANTS  187 

obtained  from  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public.  Instruction  and 
from  the  National  Audubon  Society. 

Common  Animals. —  As  in  the  case  of  insects  we  find  that  some 
of  our  common  animals  are  harmful,  some  are  beneficial,  while 
others  are  harmful  or  beneficial  according  to  circumstances.  All 
animals  that  live  on  a  vegetable  diet  may  be  regarded  to  a  certain 
extent  as  enemies  of  plants.  In  the  whole  list  there  is  no  greater 
enemy  of  plant  life  than  man  himself.  Millions  of  trees  are  cut 
down  every  year  to  supply  his  demands  for  lumber  and  for  the 
wood  pulp  needed  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  Hodge  in  his 
book  on  Nature  Study  says:  "  It  has  been  estimated  that  we  have 
five  hundred  million  acres  in  growing  forests,  and  that  thirty-five 
cubic  feet  of  wood  are  annually  produced  per  acre.  Annual  con- 
sumption of  wood,  according  to  Professor  Farrow,  is  probably 
double  the  amount  produced.  Inferences  from  these  facts  are 
obvious."  Unless  this  waste  is  checked,  it  will  be  only  a  short 
time  until  there  will  be  practically  no  forests  of  any  note  in  this 
country. 

But  while  in  this  particular  instance  man  seems  to  be  an  enemy 
of  plant  life,  it  is  also  equally  true  that  in  many  other  instances 
certain  plants  would  not  be  able  to  live  and  thrive  except  for  the 
protecting  influence  of  man.  Many  trees,  shrubs,  and  garden 
plants  could  hardly  exist  without  the  constant  attention  and  care 
of  man. 

Harmful  Animals.  —  In  the  list  of  harmful  animals  we  may  class 
in  a  general  way,  rabbits,  rats,  mice,  gophers,  goats,  etc. 

Rabbits.  —  Our  common  rabbits  are  very  widely  distributed 
and  are  often  very  destructive  on  account  of  their  vegetarian  diet. 
The  cottontails,  or  small  species  of  rabbits,  do  a  great  deal  of  dam- 
age by  gnawing  the  bark  of  fruit  trees  and  devouring  the  young 
plants  in  our  gardens  and  truck  patches.  West  of  the  Mississippi 
there  is  a  larger  species,  known  as  the  jack  rabbit,  which  is  quite 
famous  on  account  of  its  remarkable  speed.  It  is  also  quite 
destructive,  and  is  one  of  the  worst  pests  known  on  the  farm. 
Fruit  trees  may  be  protected  to  some  extent  against  rabbits  by 
placing  common  screen  wire  or  gauze  around  the  trunks  of  the 
trees  at  the  bottom.  Whitewashes  containing  tar,  carbolic  acid, 
and  poison  have  also  been  recommended,  but  are  regarded  by  many 


188  FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF  PLANTS 

as  being  of  doubtful  efficacy.  Perhaps  the  most  effectual  remedy 
would  be  a  campaign  of  extermination  undertaken  by  the  State 
or  National  government. 

Rats  and  Mice.  —  The  common  house  rats  and  mice  do  a  great 
deal  of  damage  by  their  ravages  on  the  farmer's  stock  of  seed  corn 
and  other  cereals.  They  usually  eat  only  the  heart  or  kernel  of 
each  grain  of  corn,  so  that  it  will  not  germinate  or  sprout  when 
planted.  The  field  mice  do  a  great  deal  of  damage  by  destroying 
the  corn  after  it  is  planted.  To  guard  against  their  ravages  some 
farmers  have  resorted  to  the  plan  of  soaking  the  seed  corn  before 
planting  in  water  containing  poison,  but  this  is  hardly  practicable 
in  large  fields.  The  common  house  rats  and  mice  may  be  held  in 
check  by  catching  them  in  traps,  by  poisoning  their  food,  or  by 
keeping  around  the  house  cats,  rat  terriers,  dogs,  or  ferrets. 
•  Gophers.  —  These  are  small  animals  that  do  a  great  deal  of 
damage  by  burrowing  in  the  ground  and  by  attacking  some  of  our 
garden  plants.  Many  lawns  are  frequently  ruined  by  gophers 
cutting  the  roots  of  the  grass  and  causing  the  sod  to  die. 

Prairie  Dogs.  —  In  many  parts  of  the  West  there  are  small 
burrowing  animals  that  look  very  much  like  our  common  squir- 
rels. They  live  in  colonies  or  prairie  dog  towns  and  do  a  great  deal 
of  damage  on  account  of  the  many  underground  passages  they 
construct.  Farmers  sometimes  try  to  suffocate  them  with  the 
fumes  of  carbon  bisulphide  or  try  to  catch  them  in  traps. 

Moles.  —  These  are  small  animals  about  the  size  of  a  common 
house  rat,  which  burrow  in  the  ground  and  excavate  elaborate 
tunnels  with  their  shovel-like  feet.  They  make  their  tunnels  so 
near  the  surface  that  they  undermine  the  roots  of  grass  and  small 
plants.  Of  course  late  in  the  spring  with  the  approach  of  the  dry 
season  this  is  likely  to  cause  the  death  of  the  plants,  and  steps  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  moles  among  our  garden  plants 
at  that  time.  Moles  devour  the  insects  that  happen  to  cross  their 
path,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  good  they  accomplish  in  this  way 
will  counterbalance  the  injury  they  do  the  plant  when  they  tunnel 
through  its  roots. 

They  may  be  caught  in  mole  traps  or  snares  or  killed  by  poison- 

'  ing  food  and  placing  it  in  the  ground  where  they  are  burrowing. 

Many  gardeners  also  advocate  planting  castor  beans  or  mole 


FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF   PLANTS 


189 


beans  in  the  garden,  which,  they  claim,  will  prevent  the  intrusion 
of  moles. 

Goats. —  Of  all  our  domestic  animals  the  goat  seems  the  most 
destructive  on  account  of  its  gnawing  propensities  in  addition  to 
its  insatiable  appetite.  Goats  usually  strip  off  all  the  foliage 
on  young  fruit  trees  that  is  within  their  reach  and  then  finish  their 
work  of  destruction  by  gnawing  off  the  bark  around  the  trunk  of 
the  tree.  The  only  safe  plan  is  to  keep  them  out  of  the  orchard 
and  the  yard  or  flower  garden. 

Beneficial  Animals.  —  There  are  some  animals  that  are  very 
beneficial  to  plants  on  account  of  their  living  upon  insects  injurious 
to  plants. 

The  Toad.  —  A  great  many  people  look  upon  the  common  toad 
as  an  ugly  repulsive  animal  that  is  of  no  particular  use  to  any 

one,  but  this  is  a  wrong  idea      • 

which  we  should  lose  no  time 
in  correcting. 

Toads  devour  thousands  of 
insects  and  in  this  way  do  us 
a  great  benefit.  Flies,  worms, 
and  bugs  are  the  natural  food 
of  toads;  and  when  you  reflect 
upon  this,  you  surely  will  feel 
more  kindly  disposed  towards 
them.  It  is  estimated  that 
insects  destroy  crops  every 
year  worth  at  least  five  hundred  million  dollars.  During  the 
day  the  toad  usually  hides  away  in  some  safe  nook  or  shelter, 
but  as  night  approaches  he  creeps  forth  in  search  of  his  food.  In 
cities  and  towns  we  frequently  see  large  numbers  of  toads  sitting 
under  the  arc  lamps  in  the  streets  to  catch  the  insects  which  then 
flutter  around  these  lights  and  fall  to  the  ground.  If  you  were  to 
count  the  number  of  insects  devoured  by  a  single  toad  in  the  course 
of  an  evening,  you  would  be  surprised  at  the  capacity  of  his  stomach 
and  would  learn  to  prize  him  more  highly  as  a  friend  of  plants  and 
indirectly  as  a  benefactor  of  the  human  family.  If  we  were  to 
domesticate  toads  and  keep  them  in  our  gardens,  we  should  have 
much  less  trouble  with  insects  and  should  have  much  better  success 


Toad 


190  FRIENDS   AND   ENEMIES   OF  PLANTS 

with  our  plants.  By  surrounding  the  garden  with  finely  woven 
poultry,  wire  fencing  toads  may  be  confined  within  the  premises 
and  we  can  satisfy  ourselves  as  to  the  advantage  of  their  presence. 
If  this  is  not  done,  the  toads  will  make  their  escape. 

The  Horned  Toad.  —  The  so-called  horned  toad  is  really '  a 
lizard  found  in  the  dry  prairies  and  plains  of  the  United  States 
and  Mexico.  In  Arizona,  California,  Texas,  Kansas,  and  Oklahoma 
they  are  very  abundant  and  may  be  captured  without  much 
difficulty.  They  resemble  the  common  toads,  but  are  much 
smaller,  and  their  bodies  are  covered  with  scales  and  spines  of  a 
brownish,  dusky  tint.  On  each  side  of  the  animal's  head  is  a  short 
heavy  spine  or  horn,  and  on  account  of  this  fact  it  is  known  as 
the  horned  toad.  They  feed  on  flies,  ants,  and  other  small  insects. 

Frogs.  —  Our  common  frogs  are  another  class  of  animals  that 
do  us  good  service  in  devouring  insects.  They  look  very  much 
like  the  common  toad,  but  spend  the  most  of  their  time  in  water 
instead  of  living  on  land. 

Other  Beneficial  Animals.  —  It  is  frequently  found  advisable 
to  turn  hogs  into  our  orchards  in  order  that  they  may  capture  and 
devour  the  grubs  or  larvae  of  objectionable  insects  that  may 
be  present  on  the  ground.  It  will  be  found  advisable  to  adopt 
some  means  of  preventing  the  hogs  from  rooting  up  the  ground 
and  doing  too  much  damage  in  this  way.  This  is  usually  accom- 
plished by  clamping  an  iron  ring  or  crescent  in  each  hog's  nose. 
Besides  eating  up  the  grubs,  the  hogs  will  also  eat  up  any  diseased 
or  decayed  fruit  that  may  fall  from  the  trees. 

Sheep  are  sometimes  turned  into  fields  to  subdue  weed  pests, 
and  they  do  the  work  very  satisfactorily.  Goats  are  frequently 
used  for  the  same  purpose  if  there  are  no  fruit  trees  around. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Ascertain  the  cost  of  a  formaldehyde  solution  for  a  bushel  of  seed  oats, 
and  then  calculate  the  cost  for  the  seed  required  to  sow  a  field  of  forty  acres. 

2.  Estimate  the  amount  of  I^rdeaux  mixture  necessary  to  spray  an 
acre  of  potatoes  and  calculate  cost  for  a  field  of  twenty  acres. 

3.  How  many  bushels  of  potatoes  at  seventy-five  cents  per  bushel  will 
it  take  to  pay  for  the  Bordeaux  mixture  used  in  the  above  problem  ? 

4.  Estimate  the  labor  required  and  calculate  the  number  of  bushels  of 
potatoes  that  will  be  required  to  pay  for  the  labor. 


FRIENDS  AND   ENEMIES   OF  PLANTS  191 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  meaning  of  the  term  insects. 

2.  Discuss  the  general  classes  of  insects. 

3.  What  sprays  are  recommended  for  biting  insects  ? 

4.  Describe  in  a  general  way  the  sucking  insects. 

5.  What  kind  of  spray  should  be  used  against  these  insects  ? 

6.  Name  some  simple  remedy  that  may  be  used  against  soft-bodied 
insects. 

7.  Discuss  predaceous  insects. 

8.  Name  some  of  the  common  insect  enemies. 

9.  Discuss  the  plum  curculio. 

10.  Describe  the  potato  beetle  and  suggest  remedy. 

11.  Discuss  (a)  the  cankerworm,  (6)  the  army  worm. 

12.  Describe  (a)  the  tent  caterpillar,  (6)  the  tobacco  worm. 

13.  Discuss  the  cotton-boll  weevil  and  suggest  means  of    fighting?  it. 

14.  Discuss  (a)  cutworms,  (6)  the  codling  moth. 

15.  Describe  (a)  the  Hessian  fly,  (6)  the  San  Jose  scale. 

16.  Discuss  the  general  idea  that  birds  are  injurious  to  farmers. 

17.  Discuss  harmful  birds. 

18.  What  can  you  say  of  harmful  animals  ? 

19.  Discuss  (a)  rabbits,  (6)  rats  and  mice,  (c)  gophers. 

20.  What  can  you  say  of  the  prairie  dogs  ? 

21.  Discuss  (a)  moles,  (6)  goats. 

22.  Name  some  animals  that  are  beneficial  to  plants. 

23.  Discuss  (a)  the  toad,  (6)  horned  toad,  (c)  frogs. 

24.  Name  other  animals  that  may  be  beneficial. 

REFERENCES 

Three  Insect  Enemies  of  Shade  Trees,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  99. 
The  Usefulness  of  the  American  Toad,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  196. 
Important  Insecticides,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  127. 

Spraying  for  Apple  Diseases  and  the  Codling  Moth  in  the  Ozarks,  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  283. 

Insects,  Lora  S.  La  Mance. 
Insects  and  Insecticides,  Weld. 


XXIX.     HORTICULTURE 

THE  word  horticulture  is  of  Latin  derivation  and  translated 
literally  means  garden  culture  or  the  cultivation  of  garden  products- 
It  is  used  in  a  much  broader  sense,  however,  and  it  includes  the 
cultivation  and  growing  of  vegetables,  fruits,  flowers,  and  orna- 
mental plants. 

Horticulture  may  be  subdivided  as  follows: 

1.  Olericulture  or  vegetable  gardening. 

2.  Pomology  or  fruit  growing. 

3.  Floriculture  or  flower  gardening. 

4.  Landscape  gardening,  or  the  designing  of  landscape  effects 
in  the  arrangement  of  ornamental  plants. 

Vegetable  Gardening  may  again  be  subdivided  into  market 
gardening  and  home  gardening.  Market  gardening,  as  the  name 
implies,  has  for  its  object  the  raising  and  marketing  of  vegetable 
products  for  profit;  while  home  gardening  has  for  its  object  simply 
the  raising  of  vegetables  for  home  use.  Market  gardening,  or 
truck  farming  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  may  be  carried  on  very 
profitably  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  where  the  soil, 
climate,  markets,  and  transportation  facilities  are  favorable. 
The  best  truck  patches  or  market  gardens  are  found  in  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  belts,  but  truck  farming  is  also  successfully  carried  on 
in  many  of  the  Northern,  Central,  and  Southern  States.  From 
five  to  ten  acres  is  the  average  size  of  these  farms;  and  the  truck 
growers  who  own  them  usually  realize  handsomely  on  their  in- 
vestments, especially  when  the  farms  are  within  easy  reach  of 
the  market  in  some  large  city.  In  Colorado,  Arizona,  New 
Mexico,  Nevada,  California,  Idaho,  Montana,  Utah,  and  Washing- 
ton truck  farming  is  carried  on  very  successfully  in  the  irrigated 
districts,  and  good  markets  are  found  in  the  adjacent  mining 
regions  where  vegetables  cannot  be  successfully  grown. 

Marketing  Crops.  —  It  is  now  possible  to  transport  perishable 
products  in  a  very  short  time  from  one  part  of  the  country  to 

192 


HORTICULTURE  193 

another,  so  that  the  factor  of  distance  is  not  so  important  as 
formerly.  When  the  market  is  oversupplied  in  one  part  of  the 
country  with  a  certain  article,  the  railroad  enables  us  to  ship  it  to 
some  other  place  where  a  demand  for  the  article  exists.  Thus  in 
the  spring  the  excess  of  early  vegetables  and  fruits  in  the  South 
may  be  shipped  North,  where  a  ready  and  profitable  market  may 
be  found  for  them.  Later  in  the  season,  when  the  dry  hot  weather 
in  the  South  has  made  gardening  less  favorable,  the  surplus  garden 
products  and  fruits  of  the  North  can  be  shipped  South  to  advantage- 
Sometimes  there  is  a  general  failure  of  all  crops  throughout  the 
year,  and  famine  would  result  but  for  the  facilities  in  rapid  trans- 
portation afforded  us  by  our  railroad  and  steamship  lines,  which 
make  it  possible  for  us  to  secure  these  things  from  other  more 
fortunate  countries  on  short  notice.  The  modern  refrigerator 
or  cold  storage  cars  make  it  possible  to  ship  perishable  fruits 
and  meats  to  all  parts  of  our  country  without  danger  of  loss  or 
decay,  regardless  of  distance.  „  Cold  storage  warehouses  make 
it  possible  to  preserve  perishable  products  until  they  can  be  used- 
Beef,  pork,  eggs,  butter,  fruit,  and  vegetables  are  collected  in  our 
market  centers  and  are  placed  in  cold  storage  until  the  demand  for 
these  articles  is  such  that  they  can  be  sold  at  a  profit. 

Improved  methods  in  canning,  in  preserving,  and  in  drying  have 
made  it  possible  to  save  perishable  products  so  that  they  may  be 
offered  for  sale  at  a  time  when  the  market  is  not  glutted. 

The  Hotbed.  —  Early  crops  are  made  possible  by  the  use  of  the 
greenhouse,  hotbeds,  and  cold  frames.  The  greenhouse  is  some- 
what difficult  of  construction  and  management  and  is  seldom 
found  practicable  on  small  truck  farms.  The  hotbed  is  easily  made, 
and  there  is  no  reason  why  every  farmer  should  not  have  one.  The 
box  or  frame  may  be  of  any  convenient  size  and  should  be  about 
twelve  inches  high  on  the  north  side  and  about  eight  inches  on  the 
south  side.  Before  putting  the  frame  in  position  dig  a  pit  at  least 
two  feet  deep  and  one  foot  larger  each  way  than  the  frame  to  be 
used.  When  this  is  done  the  pit  should  be  filled  with  fresh 
horse  manure  containing  a  liberal  amount  of  straw  bedding. 
This  manure  should  be  stirred  several  times  with  a  fork  and 
kept  moist  by  watering  if  necessary  until  the  whole  mass 
is  heating  moderately  and  uniformly,  and  as  soon  as  this  is 

PEAC.   AGRICUL. 13 


194 


HORTICULTURE 


Loose-leaved  lettuce. 


accomplished  tramp  the  manure  down  firmly.  Then  light,  rich, 
friable  soil  should  be  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface  and  care- 
fully leveled.  Leave  the  hotbed  partially  open  for  several  days  until 

the  heat  drops  to  65°  at  night 
and  remains  comparatively  con- 
stant ;  then  the  hotbed  is  ready 
for  sowing.  In  severe  weather 
manure  should  be  kept  piled  on 
the  outside  of  the  frame  level 
with  each  side,  and  when -ex- 
amining the  plants  we  should  be 
careful  not  to  expose  them  to  a 
cold  draft  of  air  which  would 
check  their  growth.  The  whole 
frame  should  be  covered  with 
glazed  sashes,  so  arranged  that 
they  can  be  easily  replaced  or  moved  as  may  be  desired.  Under  a 
warm  bright  sun  the  hotbed  easily  overheats,  and  we  must  open 
the  sash  and  provide  proper  ventilation.  The  cold  frame  differs 
from  the  hotbed  in  having  no  manure  or  other  heating  material. 
The  cold  frame  is  used  to  harden  plants  and  at  the  same  time 
protect  them  and  keep  them  growing. 

Garden  Vegetables. —  Lettuce  is  a  small  plant  much  used  in 
making  salads.  The  principal 
kinds  are  the  heading  varieties 
and  the  curled  or  loose-leaved 
varieties.  The  seed  should  be 
planted  in  beds  or  rows  early 
in  the  spring  and  should  be 
covered  very  lightly  and  spar- 
ingly with  warm  rich  soil. 

Spinach  is  a  common  pot  ~^L 
herb.  It  is  sowed  in  drills 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart, 
and  the  plants  are  thinned  out 
after  the  leaves  become  about  an  inch  in  width.  The  favorite 
varieties  are  the  Savoy  leaved,  the  New  Zealand,  and  the  Victoria. 
The  onion  is  one  of  our  most  useful  garden  vegetables.  It  not 


Head  lettuce. 


HORTICULTURE 


1.95 


Savoy  leaved  spinach. 


only  contains  considerable  nutriment,  but  has  valuable  medicinal 

properties.     It  is  said  to  be  a  valuable  article  of  diet  for  those  who 

live  sedentary  lives.      It   will   grow  in   almost   any  rich  loam 

which  has  only  a  slight  mixture 

of  clay.     Onions  may  be  grown 

from  either  seeds  or  sets.     In 

gardens   the    sets    are   usually 

placed  in  beds  and  in  short  rows 

fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart, 

but  in  truck  patches  the  sets 

are  placed  in  long  rows  so  that 

the  onions  may  be  plowed  with 

a  cultivator.     Onion  growing  is 

usually   found   profitable,    and 

the  yield  usually  varies   from 

three  to  five  hundred  bushels  per  acre  under  favorable  conditions 

on  rich  soil.     Some  of  the  best  varieties  are  the  round  white 

silverskin,  mammoth,  silver  king,   Michigan  yellow  globe,  the 

early  red  and  the  large  red  Wethersfield. 

Celery  is  one  of  our  highly  prized  vegetables  and  is  not 
very  difficult  to  grow  when  handled  properly.  For  home  use 
it  may  be  grown  by  what  is  called  the  new  process.  This 

consists  in  making  the  celery 
bed  as  rich  as  possible  and  set- 
ting the  plants  in  it  six  to  eight 
inches  apart  or  close  enough  so 
that  the  plants  will  blanch  each 
other.  The  plants  are  grown 
from  seed  sown  in  shallow  boxes 
in  which  the  soil  is  kept  very 
moist  all  the  time  until  the  seed  germinate.  In  sowing  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  cover  the  seed  too  deep.  The  seed  should 
be  sown  in  the  spring  and  the  plants  set  out  in  rows  early  in 
the  summer.  In  setting  the  plants  make  broad  trenches  about 
six  inches  deep  and  four  to  six  feet  apart  and  set  the  plants  at 
intervals  of  every  six  or  seven  inches.  When  the  plant  is  nearly 
full  grown,  press  the  leaves  closely  together  and  pull  the  earth 
around  the  plant  to  one  third  of  its  height,  taking  care  that 


Victoria  spinach. 


196  HORTICULTURE 

none  of  the  soil  falls  between  the  leaves  or  stems.  After  a  few 
days  draw  a  little  more  soil  around  the  plants  and  repeat  the  pro- 
cess every  few  days  until  only  the  tops  of  the  plants  can  be  seen. 

A  great  deal  of  celery  is  raised  in  Michigan,  Ohio,  and  New 
York,  and  also  in  Florida,  Arizona,  California,  and  New  Mexico. 
Some  of  our  best  varieties  come  from  Kalamazoo,  Michigan, 
and  Roswell,  New  Mexico. 

The  Cabbage  grows  well  on  rich  land  in  almost  any  part  of  the 
United  States.  The  seed  is  sown  in  hotbeds  or  in  small  boxes 
filled  with  soil  and  kept  in  a  warm  place  until  the  weather  is 
favorable  for  transplanting.  Then  the  plants  are  set  out  twenty 
to  thirty-six  inches  apart  in  three-foot  rows  and  are  kept  well 
cultivated.  The  young  plants  are  rather  tender  and  demand 
constant  care  and  attention  in  the  beginning.  One  of  the  worst 
enemies  of  the  cabbage  plant  is  the  cabbage  worm,  and  the  suc- 
cessful gardener  must  be  ever  on  the  watch  for  its  appearance. 
In  the  fall,  before  freezing  begins,  gardeners  usually  gather 
their  cabbage,  place  them  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  heads  down,  and 
cover  them  several  inches  deep  with  clean  dry  soil.  This  protects 
the  heads  from  freezing,  and  makes  it  possible  to  carry  the  cabbage 
through  the  winter  without  damage.  In  southern  California, 
southern  Texas,  and  Florida  the  climate  is  so  mild  that  this  is 
not  necessary,  and  cabbage  is  grown  and  cultivated  all  through 
the  winter  months.  Here  the  cutting  and  shipping  season  extends 
from  March  until  June. 

It  is  said  that  the  first  cabbage  known  to  the  English  were 
brought  to  England  by  the  Romans,  and  from  that  place  the 
plants  were  brought  by  our  Pilgrim  forefathers  to  the  United 
States. 

Asparagus  is  very  hardy  and  is  a  very  popular  vegetable. 
Before  sowing  the  seed  they  should  be  soaked  in  water  not  quite 
scalding  hot  for  several  minutes,  or  until  the  water  becomes  cool. 
Then  pour  this  off,  and  repeat  the  hot  water  treatment  two  or 
three  times.  The  seed  then  should  be  sown  in  drills  one  foot 
apart  and  should  be  covered  not  more  than  two  inches  deep 
with  nice  rich  soil.  When  the  plants  come  up,  they  should  be 
thinned  out  so  that  they  will  be  at  least  an  inch  apart.  In 
the  fall  the  plants  should  be  set  out  in  the  asparagus  bed,  which 


HORTICULTURE  197 

should  be  broken  deeply  and  well  manured  beforehand.  Set  the 
plants  about  four  inches  deep  and  about  one  or  two  feet  apart  in 
three-  or  four-foot  rows.  Then  cover  the  plants  with  rich  soil  and 
a  layer  of  stable  manure.  Early  the  next  spring  add  another 
dressing  of  manure  and  wood  ashes,  and  sprinkle  the  bed  with  a 
little  salt.  Keep  the  bed  well  cultivated  and  pull  out  all  weeds 
and  grass.  The  plants  should  not  be  cut  until  they  have  had 
three  years'  growth.  When  prepared  for  market  use,  the  stalks 
are  tied  up  in  bunches  of  ten  or  twelve. 

Asparagus  is  one  of  our  oldest  vegetables  and  it  has  a  very 
interesting  history.  It  is  said  that  it  was  first  used  in  Rome 
and  was  carried  by  the  Roman  soldiers  to  the  Gauls  and  Britons. 
When  our  English  ancestors  came  to  New  England,  they  brought 
this  plant  with  them ;  and  now  there  is  scarcely  a  part  of  our 
country  where  it  is  not  grown. 

Rhubarb,  Pie  plant,  succeeds  best  in  deep  rich  soil.  The 
plants  should  be  set  not  less  than  three  or  four  feet  apart  when 
transplanted.  The  stalks  should  not  be  cut  until  the  second 
year,  and  the  plant  should  not  be  allowed  to  exhaust  itself  by 
going  to  seed. 

The  Tomato  is  now  to  be  found  in  nearly  every  garden  in  the 
land,  but  formerly  it  was  cultivated  only  as  an  ornamental  plant. 
It  was  called  the  love  apple  and  was  thought  to  be  poisonous. 
Packers  estimate  that  at  least  three  hundred  thousand  acres  are 
required  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  canning  industry  alone. 
If  we  add  to  this  the  acreage  required  for  home  consumption 
and  other  purposes,  the  total  acreage  will  be  not  far  from  half  a 
million. 

All  the  numerous  varieties  of  tomatoes  now  grown  are  the 
offspring  of  a  single  plant  that  was  found  in  the  Andean  region 
of  South  America.  California,  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  Indiana, 
Florida,  and  Texas  are  the  leading  tomato-growing  States. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  same  way  as  for  cabbage,  and 
the  young  plants,  after  hardening,  should  be  transplanted  and 
placed  in  rows  not  less  than  three  feet  apart.  When  possible 
the  plants  should  be  supported  by  stakes  or  a  trellis. 

The  Eggplant,  like  the  potato  and  the  tomato,  is  a  member  of 
the  nightshade  family,  but  is  not  so  well  known  as  they  are.  The 


198  HORTICULTURE 

seed  should  be  sown  in  shallow  boxes  and  kept  in  a  warm  place 
until  the  young  plants  have  formed  at  least  two  rough  leaves 
before  attempting  to  transplant  them.  These  plants  are  very 
tender  and  should  not  be  set  out  until  all  danger  from  frost  is 
past.  Should  the  weather  set  in  very  warm,  it  will  be  advisable 
•to  shade  the  young  plants  from  the  sun.  It  will  also  be  necessary 
to  protect  the  plant  against  the  potato  bugs,  which  seem  especially 
fond  of  preying  upon  its  leaves.  When  the  plant  matures  it  bears 
a  large  purple-skinned  fruit  a  little  larger  than  the  Ben  Davis 
apple. 

The  cucumber  can  be  grown  very  easily  by  any  one,  and  it  is  a 
very  popular  article  of.  diet  in  the  summer  time  and  fall.  The 
cucumber  is  a  native  of  southern  Asia,  and  was  brought  to 
America,  at  an  early  date,  by  English  colonists.  In  planting  sow 
about  a  dozen  seed  in  a  place,  and  arrange  the  plants  in  four-foot 
rows.  After  the  plants  come  up,  thin  them  down  to  four  or  five 
in  each  group.  The  yield  will  be  greatly  improved  if  the  soil 
has  been  previously  enriched  with  a  liberal  dressing  of  well-rotted 
manure.  After  the  plants  come  up,  give  frequent,  but  shallow, 
cultivation  until  the  runners  from  the  plants  cover  the  ground. 
Remove  the  cucumbers  as  fast  as  they  become  large  enough  to  use, 
and  always  clip  them  from  the  vine  with  a  knife  instead  of  pulling 
them  off  by  hand.  If  the  growth  of  the  vine  is  too  rank,  pinch  off 
the  terminal  and  some  of  the  lateral  buds.  Slacked  lime,  tobacco 
dust,  and  wood  ashes  will  be  found  useful  in  keeping  off  beetles 
and  other  insects  which  attack  the  plants. 

The  watermelon  came  originally  from  tropical  Africa,  and  has 
been  cultivated  from  early  times.  It  is  now  grown  extensively 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  especially  in  the  United  States. 
The  seed  should  be  planted  in  rich  ground,  well  manured,  and  in 
hills  about  eight  feet  apart.  The  manure  should  be  well  rotted 
and  the  seed  should  not  be  planted  over  an  inch  deep  in  the  soil. 
As  in  the  case  of  cucumbers,  it  will  be  found  advisable  not  to  plant 
the  seed  until  the  ground  has  become  thoroughly  warm  and  all 
danger  from  frost  has  passed.  The  best  melons  are  raised  in 
Georgia  and  Oklahoma. 

The  muskmelon  is  a  native  of  Asia,  but  is  now  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  many  parts  of  the  United  States.  New  Jersey,  Mich- 


HORTICULTURE  199 

igan,  Colorado,  Arkansas,  Texas,  Oklahoma,  Arizona,  California, 
and  New  Mexico  now  grow  large  quantities  of  both  muskmelons 
and  watermelons.  There  are  two  well-defined  varieties  of  musk- 
melons,  one  known  as  the  cantaloupe  and  the  other  as  the  nutmeg 
melon.  The  former  has  hard  rinds,  and  the  latter  is  a  netted  type 
with  softer  rinds.  The  best  nutmeg  melons  are  the  Rocky  Ford 
melon  grown  in  Colorado,  and  the  Netted  Gem  melon  grown  in 
southwestern  Michigan  and  elsewhere. 

Muskmelons  should  be  planted  and  grown  in  the  same  way  as 
watermelons.  Both  require  light,  rich,  sandy  soil  to  make  their 
best  growth. 

Pumpkins  are  cultivated  in  the  same  way  as  melons  but  on  a 
much  larger  scale.  They  are  usually  planted  in  fields  between  the 
hills  of  corn  and  will  grow  and  do  well  on  a  variety  of  soils.  They 
mature  in  the  fall  and  assume  a  rich  golden  hue. 

The  pumpkin  is  said  to  be  of  tropical  American  origin  and  was 
cultivated  by  the  early  Indians  in  this  country  in  their  fields  of 
corn.  A  great  deal  of  pumpkin  is  now  canned,  and  it  forms  a 
very  profitable  industry.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  States 
pumpkins  are  fed  to  stock  and  are  found  very  satisfactory  for 
this  purpose. 

Squash. —  This  is  a  very  important  and  a  very  nutritious  garden 
vegetable  which  can  be  grown  in  nearly  every  part  of  our  country. 
The  squash  requires  the  same  kind  of  culture  and  attention  as 
cucumbers  and  melons. 

Peas  have  been  known  and  cultivated  in  Europe  and  Asia  from 
the  earliest  times.  The  best-known  varieties  are  the  garden  peas 
used  as  a  vegetable  and  the  field  peas  grown  as  forage  for  stock  and 
as  a  soil  renovator.  Large  quantities  of  garden  peas  are  canned 
every  year. 

Beans. —  Our  common  garden  bean  is  a  native  of  South  America 
which  was  carried  to  Europe  and  was  then  brought  to  America. 
The  native  European  bean  does  not  do  well  in  the  United  States. 
Some  of  the  leading  varieties  of  our  beans  are  the  black  wax,  the 
golden  wax,  the  crystal  white  wax,  the  dwarf  bush,  etc.  All 
these  varieties  are  sensitive  to  cold  and  must  not  be  planted  until 
all  danger  from  frost  is  past.  Another  popular  variety  of  bean  is 
the  Lima  or  butter  bean,  which  is  also  a  native  of  South  America. 


200 


HORTICULTURE 


Both  dwarf  and  pole  varieties  are  generally  grown,  with  a  prefer- 
ence for  thick-seeded  dwarf  varieties  in  some  localities.  It  is  a  favor- 
ite vegetable  for  canning  purposes. 
Okra. — This  plant  is  also  known 
as  gumbo,  and  is  cultivated  for  its 
pods,  which  are  used  frequently  in 
making  soups,  especially  in  the 
South.  It  is  also  stewed  and  served 
like  asparagus.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  in  hills  about  three  feet  apart 
and  from  four  to  six  seed  should  be 
planted  in  a  hill.  After  the  plants 
come  up,  it  will  be  well  to  thin  them 
out,  and  to  leave  about  two  plants 
in  a  hill.  Okra  may  be  grown  al- 
most anywhere,  but  it  is  raised 
chiefly  in  the  Southern  States. 

Pepper.  —  Like  okra,  the  pepper 
plant  is  cultivated  chiefly  for  its 
pods,  which  are  used  for  seasoning 
meats  and  foods  of  various  kinds. 
In  Mexico  and  South  America  many 

of  the  hot  varieties  are  eaten  raw.  In  this  country,  they  are 
served  either  green  or  ripe,  and  may  be  eaten  raw  with  vinegar 
and  salt,  or  may  be  filled  with  special  dressings  and  then  stewed 
before  serving.  The  culture  for  pepper  plants  is  practically  the 
same  as  for  eggplants.  The  yield  and  quality  of  fruit  will  be 
greatly  improved  if  the  ground  is  enriched  with  hen  manure. 

Other  Vegetables,  such  as  radish,  turnip,  carrot,  beet,  salsify,  are 
readily  grown  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  United  States.  They 
have  already  been  described  under  the  head  of  root  crops. 

EXERCISES 

Secure  catalogues  from  various  seed  houses  which  give  the  price  of  seed 
in  bulk,  and  estimate  the  amount  of  seed  required  for  seeding  an  acre  of 
ground  and  solve  the  following  problems.  Also  ascertain  the  market  prices 
of  vegetables  from  the  market  quotations  in  some  newspaper. 

1.  Which  is  the  most  profitable  crop,  lettuce  or  spinach  ?     Why.? 

2.  Ascertain  the  cost  of  onion  sets,  the  labor  required  for  planting  and 


HORTICULTURE  201 

cultivating,  the  yield  per  acre,  the  market  price  of  onions,  and  estimate 
the  profits  that  may  be  realized  on  five  acres  of  onions. 

3.  Which  is  the  most  profitable,  five  acres  of  onions  or  five  acres  of 
cabbage  ?     Prove  your  statement. 

4.  Estimate  the  cost  of  growing  ten  acres  of  tomatoes  and  the  profits 
that  may  be  expected. 

5.  Which  will  be  the  niost  profitable,  five  acres  of  muskmelons  or  five 
acres  of  watermelons  ?       Why  ? 

6.  Estimate  the  profit  in  five  acres  of  beans. 

7.  Which  is  the  best  investment,  ten  acres  of  turnips  or  ten  acres  of  beets  ? 
Why? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  does  the  word  horticulture  mean  ? 

2.  Give  the  divisions  of  horticulture. 

3.  What  is  vegetable  gardening? 

4.  Discuss  (a)  home  gardening,  (6)  market  gardening. 

5.  Name  the  causes  that  make  truck  farming  profitable. 

6.  Discuss  the  hotbed  and  its  advantages. 

7.  Describe  the  cold  frame  and  its  uses. 

8.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  (a)  lettuce,  (6)  spinach. 

9.  How  should  onions  be  planted  and  what  varieties  are  grown  in  your 
locality  ? 

10.  Discuss  celery  and  its  cultivation. 

11.  Discuss  the  growing  and  marketing  of  cabbage. 

12.  Give  a  brief  mention  of  the  early  history  of  cabbage. 

13.  Discuss  the  history  and  cultivation  of  asparagus. 

14.  Tell  what  you  can  of  tomato  culture. 
.15.  Discuss  (a)  the  eggplant,  (6)  cucumbers. 

16.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  melons. 

17.  What  can  you  say  of  the  growing  of  muskmelons  ? 

18.  Discuss  (a)  pumpkins,  (6)  squash. 

19.  Discuss  the  cultivation  of  (a)  peas,  (6)  beans. 

20.  Give  a  brief  mention  of  (a)  okra,  (6)  pepper. 

REFERENCES 

Ten  Acres  Enough,  Isaac  Roberts. 

Gardening  for  Profit,  Peter  Henderson. 

Money  in  the  Garden,  P.  T.  Quinn. 

Market  Gardening  and  Farm  Notes,  Burnett  Landreth. 

Tomato  Culture,  Will  W.  Tracey. 

Bean  Culture,  Glenn  C.  Sevey. 

Celery  Culture,  W.  R.  Beattie. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower,  C.  L.  Allen. 

The  New  Rhubarb  Culture,  J.  E.  Morse. 


XXX.     SPECIAL  HERB  AND   LEAF   CROPS 

No  garden  is  complete  without  a  few  herbs  of  some  kind.  For 
convenience  they  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  (1)  aromatic 
herbs,  and  (2)  medicinal  herbs.  Nearly  all  varieties  may  grow 
almost  anywhere,  but  they  thrive  best  on  sandy  soil. 

Aromatic  Herbs  are  used  chiefly  for  flavoring  and  seasoning. 
Some  of  them  also  have  medicinal  properties.  In  the  list  of  aro- 
matic herbs  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  (1)  sweet  basil,  a 
plant  with  a  clovelike  odor,  used  for  seasoning  soups  and  sauces; 
(2)  caraway,  used  for  seasoning  soups  and  flavoring  cakes;  (3)  cori- 
ander, whose  seed  afford  a  very  desirable  flavor  for  some  articles; 
(4)  dill,  an  annual  whose  seed  is  highly  esteemed  in  flavoring 
pickles;  (5)  sweet  fennel,  a  hardy  perennial  whose  leaves  are  used 
in  flavoring  soups,  sauces,  garnishes,  and  salads;  (6)  sage,  whose 
leaves  when  dried  are  used  for  seasoning  sausage,  etc. ;  (7)  thyme, 
used  for  seasoning  soups,  dressings,  and  sauces. 

Medicinal  Herbs.  —  These  are  herbs  which  have  some  special 
medicinal  quality  for  which  they  are  chiefly  valued.  In  the  list  of 
medicinal  plants  maybe  mentioned :  (1)  anise,  an  annual  herb  whose 
seed  has  an  agreeable  smell  and  taste;  (2)  balm,  a  perennial  herb 
whose  leaves  have  a  fragrant  odor,  used  in  making  balm  teas 
for  use  in  fevers;  (3)  catnip  or  catmint,  a  hardy  perennial,  highly 
esteemed  as  a  nervine  for  infants;  (4)  horehound,  a  perennial 
herb  with  strong  aromatic  smell  and  a  bitter  pungent  taste  and 
highly  esteemed  as  a  tonic  for  coughs  and  colds;  (5)  hyssop,  a 
hardy  perennial,  valued  as  a  stimulant  and  expectorant  in  treat- 
ing asthma  and  chronic  catarrh;  (6)  wormwood,  used  as  a  tonic 
and  vermifuge  and  as  a  dressing  for  bruises. 

Leaf  Crops.  — Under  the  head  of  leaf  crops,  there  are  many 
plants  that  we  might  discuss,  but  at  this  time  we  wish  to  call 
attention  only  to  tea  and  tobacco. 

The  tea  plant  is  a  bush  from  three  to  five  feet  in  height,  and 
its  leaves  resemble  those  of  a  rosebush  or  a  willow  tree.  It  is  a 

202 


SPECIAL  HERB  AND  LEAF  CROPS 


203 


native  of  subtropical  Asia,  but  grows  wild  in  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains and  often  reaches  a  height  of  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in  its 
wild  state. 

Tea  has  been  cultivated  in  China  and  Japan  for'  hundreds  of 
years,  and  it  is  a  very  important  industry  in  both  countries.  The 
plant  is  very  hardy,  and  is  now  being  successfully  grown  in  some  of 
the  Southern  States.  The  leaves  are  not  considered  fit  for  use 
until  the  plants  are  three  years  old.  The  young  leaves  and  the 


Picking  tea,  India. 

freshly  opening  buds  make  the  best  tea.  The  first  picking  is 
generally  in  April,  the  second  in  May,  and  the  third  in  June,  and 
sometimes  a  fourth  picking  may  be  made  later  in  the  season.  The 
average  yield  for  each  year  is  generally  not  more  than  a  pound. 

In  making  green  tea,  the  fresh  leaves,  almost  as  soon  as  they 
are  gathered,  are  roasted  or  steamed  for  a  short  time.  Then  the 
leaves  are  placed  on  a  table  and  rolled  by  hand  and  finally 
taken  back  and  roasted  again  for  about  an  hour.  They  are 
stirred  constantly  while  the  roasting  goes  on,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  hour  the  tea  takes  on  a  decided  green  color. '  The  leaves  are 
then  sorted  and  prepared  for  shipment.  The  color  of  tea  cannot 


204 


SPECIAL   HERB   AND    LEAF   CROPS 


always  be  relied  upon  to  indicate  the  quality  of  the  tea,  since, 
in  both  China  and  Japan,  green  teas  are  sometimes  colored  with 
indigo  and  other  materials. 

The  process  for  making  the  black  teas  is  somewhat  different 
from  that  required  in  preparing  the  green  teas.  The  leaves  are 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sunlight  until  they  wilt  and  begin  to 
ferment.  This  fermentation  is  prolonged  until  a  certain  odor  is 
given  off,  which  is  easily  recognized  by  expert  workmen.  The 
tea  is  then  placed  on  a  table  and  carefully  rolled  for  twenty-five 


Weighing  tea,  Japan. 

or  thirty  minutes,  after  which  it  is  packed  tightly  in  baskets, 
and  left  to  go  through  a  second  stage  of  fermentation.  Finally 
it  is  put  through  another  rolling  process,  preparatory  to  roasting 
it  on  iron  gauze  sieves  over  a  slow,  even  fire. 

The  tobacco  plant  is  a  native  of  America,  and  is  one  of  tli3 
crops  that  was  grown  by  the  Indians  at  the  time  that  our  earliest 
settlers  came  to  this  country.  Sir  Francis  Drake  is  credited 
with  having  carried  the  first  tobacco  from  Virginia  to  England, 
and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  person  to 
introduce  its  use  at  the  court  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Since  then  the 
use  of  tobacco  has  spread  over  practically  the  entire  world. 


SPECIAL   HERB   AND    LEAF   CROPS 


205 


The  leaves  are  used  for  making  cigars,  cigarettes,  and  ground 
tobacco  for  smoking,  and  for  making  plug  tobacco,  which  is  used 
for  chewing.  In  pioneer  days,  tobacco  often  took  the  place  of 
money,  and  we  are  told  that  many  of  the  young  colonists  bought 
their  wives  by  paying  for  their  passage  across  the  Atlantic  with 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of 
tobacco. 

Our  chief  tobacco-producing  States  are  Kentucky,  North  Caro- 
lina, Ohio,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia.  But  tobacco  will  grow  in 
North  America  almost  everywhere  from  the  equator  to  Canada. 


Tobacco  field,  Kentucky. 

The  plants  are  first  grown  in  a  seed  bed,  and  then  transplanted, 
if  possible,  when  the  weather  is  moist  and  cloudy.  The  plants 
should  be  set  out  about  three  feet  apart,  in  four-foot  rows.  They 
should  have  frequent  and  shallow  cultivation.  During  the  growing 
season,  the  plants  must  be  topped,  and  all  suckers  cut  off,  in  order 
to  insure  evenness  of  size  and  quality  in  the  leaves. 

The  finest-flavored  tobacco  is  grown  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico, 
Sumatra,  Java,  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  Havana  cigar 
and  the  Manila  cigar  are  known  the  world  over.  Our  tobacco 


206  SPECIAL  HERB  AND   LEAF  CROPS 

crop  is  often  worth  seventy  million  dollars  or  mare,  and  each 
year  the  acreage  grows  larger. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Consult  some  good  physiology  as  to  the  injurious  and  stimulating 
effect  of  tea. 

2.  Discuss  the  injurious  effect  of  tobacco  on  the  human  system. 

3.  Discuss  the  profits  in  raising  herbs. 

4.  If  possible,  visit  a  cigar  factory  and  ascertain  cost  of  making  cigars, 
amount  of  internal  revenue  tax  on  cigars,  etc.,  and  estimate  profit  on  a  box 
of  cigars. 

5.  Calculate  number  of  tobacco  plants  required  for  five  acres  of  ground 
when  they  are  planted  every  two  feet  in  rows  three  feet  apart. 

6.  Estimate  the  amount  of  tobacco  used  last  year  and  its  cost. 

7.  Estimate  the  amount  of  money  spent  for  tea. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  two  general  classes  of  herbs. 

2.  Discuss  the  aromatic  herbs. 

3.  Describe  the  medicinal  herbs. 

4.  Discuss  the  tea  plant. 

5.  Where  is  tea  cultivated  ? 

6.  How  is  green  tea  prepared  ? 

7.  How  is  black  tea  prepared  ? 

8.  Give  the  history  of  the  tobacco  plant. 

9.  Name  some  of  the  manufactured  products  of  tobacco. 
10.  Name  the  tobacco-growing  States. 

REFERENCES 

Tobacco  Leaf,  J.  R.  Killebrew. 

Methods  of  Curing  Tobacco,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  60. 

Culture  of  Tobacco,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  82. 

Tobacco  Soils,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  83. 

insects  Affecting  Plants,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  120. 

Weeds  Used  in  Medicine,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  188. 


XXXI.     SMALL  FRUIT   CROPS 

Berries.  —  The  berries  include  the  raspberry,  blackberry,  straw- 
berry, cranberry,  and  dewberry.  To  this  list  might  be  added  the 
coffee  berry,  from  which  we  obtain  the  bean  or  seed  known  as  the 
coffee  of  commerce,  and  the  cacao  fruit,  from  the  seeds  or  beans 
of  which  are  obtained  the  cocoa  and  chocolate  of  commerce. 
The  last  two  plants  named  have  not  yet  been  successfully  grown 
in  the  United  States,  but  the  products  of  these  plants  are  in  such 
general  use  in  this  country  that  some  mention  should  be  made 
of  them. 

The  Raspberry.  —  As  a  rule,  raspberries  thrive  the  best  in  a 
moist  and  fertile  loam.  They  are  grown  more  extensively  in  the 
northeast  part  of  the  United  States  than  elsewhere.  There  are 
two  principal  varieties:  the  red  raspberry,  which  is  soft  and 
unsuitable  for  shipping,  and  the  black  raspberry,  which  has  a 
tougher  texture  and  can  be  shipped 
without  difficulty.  Waste  space 
along  the  fence  or  ravines  may  be 
utilized  for  the  raspberry  patch. 
In  order  to  secure  good  results  re- 
move all  the  dead  stalks  each  fall, 
and  keep  the  ground  well  culti- 
vated and  well  manured. 

The  blackberry,  like  the  rasp- 
berry, is  a  native  American  plant, 
and  in  its  wild  state  it  has  been 

..  .  The  Lucretia  Dewberry. 

known  and  prized  for  a  long  time. 

Under  cultivation  and  careful  selection  this  plant  has  steadily 
improved  and  is  now  one  of  our  most  important  crops.  Many 
new  and  valuable  varieties  of  the  cultivated  species  have  been 
originated,  and  are  now  extensively  grown  in  nearly  every  part 
of  the  United  States.  Its  fruit  is  utilized  in  commerce  in  mak- 
ing wine,  cordial,  jelly,  jam,  and  preserves. 

207 


208  SMALL  FRUIT  CROPS 

The  Loganberry.  -  -  This  is  a  hybrid  berry  of  considerable 
value  for  the  home  garden  in  some  localities.  It  succeeds 
best  in  California  where  it  originated,  but  has  been  grown 
in  the  New  England  and  Middle  States  with  careful  winter 
protection.  The  fruit  is  a  rich  dark  red  color  when  ripe, 
an  inch  or  more  in  length,  and  has  the  flavor  of  a  black- 
berry. 

The  Dewberry.  — The  stems  of  the  dewberry  plant  show  a  tend- 
ency towards  trailing,  and  are  not  so  erect  as  the  blackberry 
stems.  Its  fruit  is  of  fewer  grains  and  ripens  earlier  than  the 
blackberry.  The  blackberry  has  from  three  to  five  ovate  leaflets, 
while  the  dewberry  has  from  three  to  seven  small  doubly-toothed 
leaflets.  The  dewberry  is  especially  adapted  to  rocky  and  sandy 
soil,  but  under  cultivation  it  has  adapted  itself  to  a  variety  of 
soils  and  climates.  Its  commercial  uses  are  practically  the  same 
as  for  the  blackberry. 

The  Strawberry.  —  The  common  garden  strawberry  is  the  off- 
spring of  a  wild  species  of  the  plant,  native  along  the  Pacific 
coast  of  America,  and  which  was  first  cultivated  in  Chile  nearly 
two  hundred  years  ago.  It  has  been  under  cultivation  in  this 
country  for  the  past  sixty  years,  and  is  one  of  our  most  important 
industries.  In  many  parts  of  the  United  States  the  strawberry 
grows  in  a  wild  state,  but  it  does  not  lend  itself  to  much  improve- 
ment under  cultivation,  as  does  the  South  American  variety. 
The  cultivated  varieties  of  the  common  garden  strawberry  are 
now  grown  from  Florida  to  Alaska,  and  on  account  of  its  wide 
range  of  growth  we  are  able  to  have  strawberries  on  the  market 
a  large  part  of  the  year.  The  early  crop  in  the  spring  is  grown  in 
Florida,  South  Texas,  and  other  Southern  States,  and  this  in  turn 
is  followed  by  the  crop  grown  in  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Oklahoma, 
and  other  States  near  the  same  latitude.  Later  the  market  is 
supplied  from  the  crop  grown  in  the  Northern  States,  so  that  the 
season  for  strawberries  is  made  much  longer  than  it  otherwise 
would  be. 

The  strawberry  plants  propagate  by  runners,  which  are  set  out 
either  in  the  spring  or  in  the  summer,  in  beds  or  rows,  in  rich  sandy 
soil.  Through  the  winter  the  young  plants  should  be  protected 
with  a  moderate  covering  of  straw.  Wood  ashes  and  fertilizers  of 


SMALL  FRUIT  CROPS  209 

like  nature  improve  the  yield  and  quality  of  the  fruit.  Gener- 
ally, after  the  second  crop  has  been  gathered,  it  is  best  to  plow  up 
the  plants  and  set  out  a  new  bed.  For  market  purposes,  the 
strawberries  are  packed  in  small  baskets  and  placed  in  crates  for 
shipment. 

The  cranberry  is  a  native  of  both  Europe  and  America.  In 
this  country,  cranberries  grow  in  boggy  lands,  from  Maine  south- 
ward to  New  Jersey,  and  also  in  the  swamp  lands  of  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  and  Wisconsin.  It  is  estimated  that  90  per  cent  of 
our  cranberry  crop  is  grown  in  Wisconsin,  Massachusetts,  and  New 
Jersey.  The  small  cranberries  found  in  the  market  are  gener- 
ally the  product  of  vines  growing  in  a  wild  state,  while  the  large 
berries  come  from  the  cultivated  plants. 

The  plants  may  be  grown  from  seed,  but  usually  they  are  grown 
from  cuttings,  set  out  a  little  over  a  foot  apart  in  rows.  In  a 
little  while  the  vines  spread  over  the  whole  space.  The  plant 
has  small  evergreen  leaves,  somewhat  whitish  underneath,  and 
early  in  the  summer  it  bears  flowers  with  a  pale  rose  corolla, 
deeply  parted.  In  the  fall  the  berries  gradually  assume  a  pale 
red  hue  and  mature.  They  are  then  gathered  by  hand  or  ma- 
chinery and  packed  in  barrels  or  crates  and  shipped. 

The  cranberry  farm,  like  the  rice  farm,  gives  the  best  results 
when  it  is  situated  so  that  it  may  be  flooded  at  certain  times  of 
the  year,  as  the  needs  of  the  plant  may  demand. 

Huckleberries.  —  Huckleberries  are  not  cultivated  for  commer- 
cial purposes,  but  are  picked  from  plants  growing  in  the  wild 
state.  In  Maine  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  no  less  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  acres  which  produce  the  blue-fruited 
variety  of  huckleberries.  These  are  frequently  termed  "  blue- 
berries," on  account  of  their  rich,  blue  color,  while  the  term 
"  huckleberries "  is  usually  applied  only  to  the  black-fruited 
varieties. 

Mulberries  differ  largely  from  the  classes  of  berries  just  de- 
scribed in  that  they  grow  on  trees.  The  trees  grow  from  fifteen 
to  fifty  feet  in  height  according  to  the  variety,  and  bear  heart- 
shaped  or  ovate  leaves.  The  white  mulberry  is  found  in  the 
Eastern  States,  and  the  Russian  mulberry  is  a  form  of  it.  The 
black  mulberry  is  found  growing  in  protected  places  in  New  Eng- 

PRAC.  AGRICUL.  —  14 


210 


SMALL  FRUIT  CROPS 


land  and  New  York.  The  red  mulberry  is  generally  distributed 
from  western  New  England  to  Nebraska,  and  southward  to  the 
Gulf.  The  fruit  is  deep  red  at  first,  but  becomes  somewhat  black 
when  fully  ripe.  In  southern  latitudes  the  fruit  becomes  fairly 
large  in  size,  has  an  agreeable  taste,  and  is  highly  esteemed  as 
a  fruit. 

The  Coffee  Berry.  —  The  coffee  tree  is  said  to  have  originated 
in  Abyssinia  and  to  have  received  its  name  from  the  province  of 
Kaffa,  where  it  may  be  still  found  growing  in  a  wild  state.  Later  it 

was  carried  over  to 
Mocha,  in  Arabia, 
and  to  Java,  and 
in  this  way  were  de- 
rived the  two  cele- 
brated varieties  of 
coffee  known  to-day 
under  those  names. 
Since  then  it  has 
been  taken  into 
practically  every 
tropical  country  of 
the  world.  It  can- 
not be  grown  farther  than  30°  north  or  south  of  the  equator 
with  any  degree  of  success.  The  chief  coffee  regions  of  the  west- 
ern world  are  in  Brazil,  Central  America,  Mexico,  and  the  West 
Indies.  It  is  also  grown  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  Australia,  Java,  Sumatra,  Ceylon,  Hayti,  San 
Domingo,  Colombia,  Venezuela,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Chile. 

The  coffee  plant  is  an  evergreen  with  shiny  leaves,  which  gener- 
ally grows  from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  in  height  in  its  natural 
state,  but  when  under  cultivation  it  is  seldom  allowed  to  attain 
more  than  half  that  height. 

The  plant  bears  fragrant  white  blossoms,  some  time  in  December 
in  regions  south  of  the  equator,  and  in  a  little  while  the  blossoms 
drop  off  and  the  berries  form.  Usually  in  April  or  May  the  early 
berries  begin  to  turn  red,  and  the  picking  season  begins.  Each 
berry  is  about  the  size  and  shape  of  the  ordinary  cranberry,  and 
in  each  berry  are  found  two  seeds  or  beans.  After  picking,  the 


Picking  coffee. 


SMALL   FRUIT   CROPS  -       211 

coffee  berries  are  taken  to  the  factory  to  be  treated,  so  that  all 
the  pulp  may  be  removed  from  the  coffee  bean,  which  is  the  coffee 
of  commerce. 

The  berries  are  run  through  machines  which  slightly  mash  the 
pulp  without  injuring  the  seeds,  and  then  the  whole  mass  is  carried 
over  a  large  copper  cylindrical  sieve,  containing  perforations  just 
large  enough  for  the  coffee  beans  to  pass  through  without  diffi- 
culty. The  beans,  as  they  fall  through  the  cylinder,  are  washed 
away  by  a  stream  of  water,  which  carries  them  off  into  large 
receiving  vessels.  Then,  while  in  the  vats,  the  beans  are  scoured 
and  cleaned  by  machinery,  so  that  not  a  vestige  of  the  pulp  re- 
mains. Then  they  are  spread  out  in  large  fields,  paved  with 
cement,  and  are  left  exposed  to  the  sun  for  several  weeks.  Dur- 
ing this  time  the  beans  must  be  stirred  with  rakes  frequently 
during  the  daytime,  and  at  night  they  must  be  carefully  covered 
so  that  they  will  not  become  damp  from  the  moisture  in  the  air. 
After  being  dried  thoroughly,  the  double  skins  or  envelopes, 
which  surround  the  seed,  must  be  removed,  and  the  beans  are 
passed  through  a  machine  which  breaks  the  skins  and  fans  away 
the  chaff.  Finally,  the  beans  have  to  be  sorted  and  graded  and 
put  into  sacks  ready  for  shipment.  Each  sack  holds  about  one 
hundred  and  thirty-two  pounds.  After  being  shipped  to  this 
country  in  the  raw  state,  coffee  is  prepared  for  use  by  roasting  the 
olive-green  beans  until  they  take  on  a  rich  brown  color,  and  then 
they  are  taken  out  and  ground  in  a  coffee  mill  as  needed.  The 
amount  of  coffee  consumed  annually  is  very  large.  The  annual 
crop  of  the  world  is  not  far  from  fifteen  hundred  million  pounds, 
and  more  than  four  fifths  of  this  is  grown  on  the  Western  Continent. 

The  cacao  tree  and  its  fruit  furnish  us  with  the  ordinary  choco- 
late and  cocoa  of  commerce.  This  tree,  like  the  coffee  tree,  will 
grow  to  a  height  of  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  if  not  pruned  from  time  to 
time.  It  is  an  evergreen,  with  large  glossy  leaves.  It  has  pink- 
ish white  blossoms,  and  its  fruit  or  pod  is  about  the  size  and  shape 
of  a  very  large  pear.  This  contains  from  twenty  to  forty  cacao 
beans  or  seeds,  each  about  the  size  of  an  almond.  Each  bean 
contains  a  dark  brown  kernel,  rich  in  oil,  and  it  is  from  this  ker- 
nel that  our  commercial  chocolate  is  manufactured.  The  cacao 
trees  begin  bearing  in  their  fourth  or  fifth  year,  and  reach  their 


212  SMALL  FRUIT   CROPS 

maximum  yield  in  their  eighth  year,  when  each  tree  will  yield 
about  eight  thousand  seeds. 

The  pods  containing  the  seed  grow  not  only  on  the  branches 
of  the  tree,  but  also  along  the  main  trunk.  In  gathering  the  seed, 
the  natives  fasten  sharp  knives  to  long  poles,  which  they  use  to 
cut  off  the  pods  that  are  out  of  reach. 

After  the  beans  are  removed  from  the  pods  and  cleansed  thor- 
oughly, they  are  roasted  in  large  revolving  cylinders,  and  finally 
crushed  in  order  that  the  kernels  may  be  removed.  The  kernels 
are  afterwards  put  into  machines  and  ground  up  and  reduced 
to  the  consistency  of  a  fine  smooth  paste  which  is  run  off  into 
molds,  where  it  hardens.  If  sweet  chocolate  is  desired,  a  little 
sugar  is  added  to  the  paste  before  it  is  passed  into  the  molds. 
From  the  cacao  nibs,  cocoa  shells,  or  broken  pieces  of  the  beans  is 
prepared  an  essence  of  cocoa  by  pouring  upon  them  boiling  hot 
water.  The  demand  for  cocoa  and  its  manufactured  products  is 
so  great  that  several  hundred  million  pounds  of  it  are  consumed 
every  year.  It  is  used  not  only  as  a  drink,  but  also  in  the  manu- 
facture of  flavoring  sirups,  candies,  cakes,  and  puddings. 

The  history  of  the  cacao  bean  is  interesting;  it  is  claimed  that 
the  ancient  Aztec  Indians  knew  the  value  of  this  plant  even  in 
their  early  day.  Corte*s,  the  Spanish  explorer  who  conquered 
Mexico,  found  the  natives  using  a  drink  made  from  the  cacao 
seed,  and  Pizarro  likewise  found  the  Incas  using  the  same  drink 
in  Peru.  The  Spaniards  carried  the  seed  back  to  Spain,  and  in- 
troduced it  among  their  friends  there,  and  since  then  its  use  has 
gradually  spread  over  nearly  the  whole  world. 

It  is  now  largely  grown  in  Mexico,  Central  America,  Ecuador, 
Colombia,  Venezuela,  Brazil,  the  West  Indies,  parts  of  Africa  and 
Asia,  the  Philippines,  Hawaii,  Java,  and  many  of  the  Pacific  Islands. 

The  Gooseberry.  —  Gooseberry  bushes  should  be  set  out  four 
feet  apart,  and  the  ground  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds  and 
grass.  The  gooseberry  has  been  known  and  grown  for  hundreds 
of  years  in  England,  it  does  well  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
United  States,  especially  in  the  State  of  Indiana.  The  green 
gooseberries  are  largely  used  for  making  sauce,  for  making  pies, 
and  for  canning.  The  ripe  gooseberries  are  used  frequently  for 
making  jelly  and  wine. 


SMALL   FRUIT   CROPS 

The  Currant  grows  well  throughout  northern  Europe,  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  United  States,  and  also  in  Asia.  Currants  are 
largely  used  in  making  currant  jelly,  and  it  is  estimated  that  no 
less  than  ten  million  quarts  of  currant  jelly  are  made  in  the  United 
States  every  year. 

EXERCISES 

1.  If  a  crop  of  thirty  bushels  of  strawberries  to  the  acre  is  only  about 
proportionate  to  a  corn  crop  of  ten  bushels  on  the  same  ground,  compare  the 
relative  values  of  five  acres  of  each  when  an  acre  of  strawberries  produces 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  bushels  of  fruit  worth  twenty-five  cents  a  quart, 
and  an  acre  of  corn  produces  forty  bushels  of  grain  worth  thirty  cents  a 
bushel. 

2.  Estimate  the  relative  cost  of  production  of  each  of  the  crops  mentioned 
above  and  calculate  the  profits  in  strawberry  culture. 

3.  Visit  some  nursery,  if  possible,  and  learn  something  about  the  culture 
of  blackberries  and  raspberries,  and  estimate  the  comparative  values  of  an 
acre  of  each  crop. 

4.  Secure  estimates  on  the  amount  of  coffee  used  annually  in  the  United 
States  and  calculate  the  expenditure  for  the  same. 

5.  Study  the  injurious  and  stimulating  effects  of  coffee. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  raspberries  and  their  culture. 

2.  Describe  blackberry  culture. 

3.  What  are  the  distinct  characteristics  of  the  loganberry  fruit  ? 

4.  Describe  the  dewberry. 

5.  Discuss  the  strawberry. 

6.  Describe  the  cranberry  industry. 

7.  Discuss  (a)  huckleberries,  (6)  mulberries. 

8.  Describe  the  coffee  berry. 

9.  Where  is  coffee  grown  ? 

10.  Describe  the  preparation  of  coffee  for  the  market. 

11.  Discuss  the  cacao  tree  and  its  fruit. 

12.  Give  the  history  of  the  cacao  tree. 

13.  Describe  the  gooseberry  and  the  currant. 

REFERENCES 

The  Fruit  Garden,  Barry. 

How  the  World  is  Fed  (Industrial  Reader),  Carpenter. 

Small  Fruit  Culturist,  Fuller. 

North  America  and  South  America  (Geographical  Reader),  Carpenter 

Cranberry  Culture,  Joseph  J.  White. 

Strawberry  Culturist,  Andrew  S.  Fuller. 


XXXII.     SPECIAL   VINE   CROPS 

SOME  of  the  vine  crops  are  not  very  closely  related,  but  for 
convenience  they  are  grouped  together  here.  Some  of  those  that 
we  shall  discuss  now  are  grapes,  hops,  black  pepper,  and  vanilla. 

Grapes.  — Raising  grapes  is  a  most  important  industry.  The 
grape  is  one  of  the  oldest  cultivated  plants,  and  was  known  to  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  also  to  the  Egyptians.  The 
Scuppernong,  the  Catawba,  and  the  Concord  have  been  developed 
from  varieties  that  were  found  growing  wild  in  this  country.  It 
is  said  that  the  first  attempt  at  growing  grapes  in  this  country 
was  made  by  a  Frenchman  at  Jamestown,  Virginia,  in  1610;  and 
since  then  their  culture  has  spread  all  over  the  United  States. 
Large  quantities  of  grapes  are  raised  in  New  York,  Ohio,  Vir- 
ginia, Missouri,  the  Southern  States,  California,  New  Mexico,  and 
Arizona.  California  leads  all  the  States  in  grape  culture,  both 
as  to  quality  as  well  as  to  quantity.  Some  of  the  varieties 

grown  there  are  of 
European  origin, 
but  the  white  Mus- 
catel, which  is  so 
largely  grown,  was 
brought  to  Califor- 
nia from  Chile. 

Grapevines  are 
propagated  from 
cuttings  and  lay- 
ers, and  grow  best 
in  warm  fertile 
soils,  with  sunny 

Vineyard,  California. 

exposure   and    not 

too  much  moisture.  The  varieties  found  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  United  States  are  usually  trained  to  trellises  or  stakes  or 
to  run  over  arbors,  but  in  California  each  vine  stands  alone  and 
generally  without  any  support. 

214 


SPECIAL   VINE   CROPS 


215 


Grapes  are  raised  to  be  eaten  raw,  for  making  grape  butter, 
for  wine,  and  for  making  raisins.  When  grown  for  raisins,  the 
grapes  are  picked  and  placed  carefully  bunch  by  bunch  in  a  tray 
about  three  feet  long  by  two  feet  wide.  Each  bunch  is  cut 
from  the  vine  with  a  sharp  knife,  in  order  that  the  vine  may 
not  be  injured  or  the  fruit  bruised  in  handling  it.  Twenty-five 
pounds  of  ripe  grapes  will  make  about  five  pounds  of  raisins. 
When  each  tray  is 
filled  with  grapes, 
it  is  left  exposed  to 
the  sun's  rays  for 
a  week,  and  then 
another  tray  is 
placed  over  the 
half-dried  grapes, 
and  they  are'  care- 
fully inverted  and 
allowed  to  dry  as 
before.  Then  they 
are  put  into  boxes 
at  the  packing 
house,  and  are  put 

Gathering  grapes,  California. 

through  a  sweating 

process,  until  the  proper  aroma  is  developed.  Sometimes  the 
curing  process  is  carried  on  by  steam  instead  of  by  exposure  to 
the  sunlight. 

Among  the  grapes  grown  for  making  wine  are  the  following 
leading  well  known  varieties:  Bertrand,  Clinton,  Concord,  Cynthi- 
ana,  Herbemont,  Ives,  Lenoir,  and  Norton's  Virginia.  Other  vari- 
eties well  adapted  for  wine  making  are  the  Catawba,  Delaware, 
Elvira,  Missouri,  Riesling,  Niagara,  Noah,  and  the  Scupper- 
nong. 

The  Concord,  the  Delaware,  and  the  Niagara  are  popular  for 
general  market  use. 

Hops.  —  This  plant,  which  belongs  to  the  nettle  family,  is 
found  growing  wild  in  the  United  States,  in  Europe,  and  in  Siberia, 
along  the  banks  of  creeks  and  rivers.  In  the  State  of  Washington 
hops  are  grown  and  cultivated  extensively.  The  annual  crop 


216  SPECIAL   VINE   CROPS 

there  is  estimated  at  several  million  dollars'  worth.  The  hop 
plant  is  propagated  by  dividing  its  roots  in  autumn  and  spring. 
About  three  plants  should  be  put  in  a  hill,  and  the  hills  should 
be  placed  six  or  eight  feet  apart.  As  the  flowers  are  imperfect, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  staminate  and  pistillate  plants  within  easy 
reach  of  one  another.  The  ground  should  be  well  cultivated  and 
kept  free  from  weeds.  The  plants  should  be  supported  by  stakes 
and  trained  on  trellises  or  arbors. 

The  principal  use  of  hops  is  in  making  yeast,  ale,  and  beer. 
Hops  are  also  valued  for  their  medicinal  qualities.  In  Germany, 
England,  France,  and  Austria  large  quantities  of  hops  are  raised 
only  for  the  purpose  of  making  beer.  Many  of  the  brewers  in  the 
United  States  import  from  Germany  the  hops  they  use  in  manu- 
facturing beer.  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  and  Milwaukee  are  the  chief 
brewing  centers. 

Black  Pepper.  — The  use  of  pepper  dates  back  to  very  early 
times,  and  it  is  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  Greeks  at  the  time 
that  Alexander  the  Great  completed  his  conquest  of  the  world. 
They  received  the  most  of  their  pepper,  as  we  do  to-day,  from  East 
India  and  the  Malay  Islands. 

Our  black  pepper  comes  from  berries  about  the  size  of  a  pea, 
which  are  at  first  green,  then  red,  and  finally  yellow  or  black 
when  dead  ripe.  These  berries  grow  on  a  climbing  plant  with  large 
glossy  leaves,  which  is  allowed  to  grow  to  a  height  of  ten  or  twelve 
feet.  The  plants  are  propagated  both  from  seeds  and  cuttings, 
and  are  trained  on  poles  or  trellis  work,  and  they  are  set  out  at  the 
rate  of  twenty-five  hundred  to  the  acre.  They  begin  to  bear  in 
their  third  year,  and  from  this  time  they  usually  produce  approxi- 
mately two  pounds  every  year  for  a  period  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
years. 

The  pepper  berries  are  picked  while  red  and  are  put  in  the  sun- 
light to  dry,  and  are  left  there  until  they  turn  a  dark  reddish  brown 
or  black.  These  dried  berries  are  then  ground,  and  furnish  us  the 
ground  black  pepper  of  commerce.  White  pepper  is  made  by 
removing  the  pulp  of  the  ripe  berry  by  thorough  washing,  and  then, 
after  drying,  the  pale  gray  central  portion  is  ground. 

Vanilla.  — The  vanilla  vine  grows  wild  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Mexico,  and  also  in  some  parts  of  South  America,  but  it  is  now  culti- 


SPECIAL  VINE  CROPS  217 

vated  in  these  countries  and  in  some  of  the  tropical  islands  near 
them.  The  plant  has  smooth,  waxy  bark  and  is  of  a  light  green 
color.  In  planting,  shoots  about  a  yard  long  are  set  out  at  the 
foot  of  a  tree,  upon  which  the  vine  climbs  and  grows.  At  the  end 
of  the  third  year  the  vines  begin  to  bear  small,  delicately  scented 
blossoms.  Later  these  drop  off  and  pods  about  the  size  of  a  large 
banana  take  their  places. 

The  pods  are  gathered  just  before  they  mature,  and  are  dried 
and  put  through  a  sweat  under  sheds.  This  develops  and  fixes 
the  aroma  so  characteristic  of  vanilla.  From  these  pods  and  their 
beans  is  made  the  vanilla  extract  of  commerce. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Visit  a  grape  vineyard,  if  possible,  and  learn  all  you  can  about  grape. 
culture.     Ascertain  what  varieties  have  been  tried  in  your  locality  and  the 
results. 

2.  Estimate  the  cost  of  setting  out  a  vineyard  of  five  acres. 

3.  Estimate  amount  of  fruit  that  may  be  expected  and  calculate  the 
value  when  grapes  are  worth  forty  cents  a  basket. 

4.  Which  is  more  valuable,  all  things  considered,  five  acres  of  grapes 
or  five  acres  of  strawberries  ?     Prove  your  statement. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  some  of  the  special  vine  crops. 

2.  Discuss  grape  culture. 

3.  Name  some  of  the  commercial  uses  of  grapes. 

4.  Name  some  of  the  leading  varieties  of  grapes. 

5.  Discuss  hop  culture. 

6.  Name  some  of  the  uses  of  hops. 

7.  Discuss  the  culture  of  black  pepper. 

8.  How  is  white  pepper  made  ? 

9.  Describe  the  vanilla  vine  and  its  fruit. 

REFERENCES 

American  Grape  Growing  and  Wine  Making,  George  Husmann. 

Grape  Growers'  Guide,  William  Chorlton. 

The  Hop,  Herbert  Myrick. 

How  the  World  is  Fed  (Industrial  Reader),  Carpenter. 

North  America  (Geographical  Reader),  Carpenter. 


XXXIII.     ORCHARD  CROPS 

OUR  orchard  crops  embrace  many  fruits  that  are  useful  to  man. 
Some  of  the  most  important  are  the  apple,  pear,  peach,  plum, 
nectarine,  apricot,  cherry,  quince,  olive,  orange,  lemon,  lime, 
guava,  grape  fruit,  fig,  date,  banana,  and  pineapple. 

The  Apple.  — The  many  varieties  of  apples  have  all  probably 
come  from  two  wild  species,  native  to  southwestern  Asia,  one 
giving  us  the  common  apple,  and  the  other  the  crab  apple.  Apples 
have  been  cultivated,  and  esteemed  highly,  from  the  most  ancient 
times,  but  many  of  our  most  highly  prized  varieties  are  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin  and  development.  The  apple  tree  thrives 
best  in  a  deep,  cool,  moist  loam,  but  it  will  grow  well  in  almost 
any  soil  in  which  lime  is  present.  When  this  element  is  not 
present,  fertilizers  containing  it  should  be  added  to  the  soil.  Apples 
are  grown  extensively  in  Europe,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  and 
North  America,  and  especially  in  the  United  States.  They  are 
extensively  grown  in  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Pennsylvania, 
the  New  England  States,  Missouri,  Oklahoma,  New  Mexico, 
Arkansas,  Michigan,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Oregon,  and 
Washington. 

Apple  trees  are  usually  propagated  from  seedlings  by  budding 
and  grafting,  and  it  is  from  these  sources  that  we  derive  our 
choicest  varieties  of  fruit.  The  young  trees  are  usually  set  out 
when  they  are  two  or  three  years  old,  in  rows  twenty  to  thirty 
feet  apart,  and  are  carefully  cultivated  from  time  to  time.  The 
trees  must  also  be  carefully  pruned  each  year,  and  sprayed  during 
the  growing  season  with  poisonous  fluids  to  keep  the  trees  free 
from  insects  and  disease. 

When  possible  the  orchard  should  be  protected  against  the 
ravages  of  rabbits  by  inclosing  it  with  closely  woven  wire  fenc- 
ing. Some  nurserymen  either  whitewash  the  trunks  of  the  young 
trees  or  place  strips  of  wire  gauze  around  the  trees  as  an  additional 
protection. 

218 


ORCHARD   CROPS  219 

Late  in  the  summer,  or  in  the  fall,  when  the  fruit  ripens,  the 
apples  are  carefully  picked  by  hand,  sorted  into  the  proper  sizes, 
and  packed  in  boxes  or  barrels  ready  for  shipment. 

The  chief  uses  of  apples  are  as  dessert  fruits,  for  canning  and 
preserving,  and  for  making  jelly,  pies,  puddings,  and  dumplings. 
They  are  also  used  for  making  apple  butter,  cider,  vinegar,  and 
brandy.  A  great  many  apples  are  dried,  or  evaporated,  for  winter 
use. 

The  Pear.  — This  tree  is  often  found  growing  wild  in  various 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  pear  was  early  brought  under 
cultivation,  and  there  are  said  to  have  been  thirty-two  varieties 
known  to  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Pliny;  but  it  was  not  until 
the  seventeenth  century  that  any  greatly  improved  varieties 
were  grown.  Pears  were  introduced  into  the  United  States  by  the 
early  settlers,  and  the  Endicott  pear  tree,  planted  in  1628,  by 
Governor  Endicott,  is  still  living. 

The  pear  tree  is  a  more  hardy  tree  than  the  apple  tree,  and 
it  is  capable  of  enduring  greater  extremes  of  heat;  and  hence  it 
grows  not  only  where  the  apple  tree  is  found,  in  the  Northern  States, 
but  also  in  the  Southern  States,  where  the  climate  is  generally 
too  warm  for  the  apple  to  flourish. 

Unlike  most  fruits,  pears  have  a  better  flavor  if  picked  while 
green  and  ripened  indoors.  The  chief  commercial  uses  of  pears 
are  for  canning,  for  making  preserves,  and  for  the  manufacture 
of  pear  cider.  In  commercial  importance  it  ranks  fourth  among 
our  orchard  crops. 

The  Peach.  —  The  peach  tree  is  a  native  of  China,  where  it  has 
been  cultivated  from  very  early  times.  From  China,  the  peach 
tree  was  introduced  into  Persia,  and  from  there  it  was  carried  to 
Europe,  and  finally  to  our  own  country.  Peaches  thrive  in  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  United  States  except  in  the  New  England  States. 
We  have  about  three  hundred  varieties  of  peaches,  and  ripe  fruit 
is  on  the  market  from  May  until  late  in  the  fall.  In  the  New 
England  States  peaches  may  be  grown  under  certain  conditions. 
Experience  has  shown  that  the  hilltops  in  these  regions  are  the 
best  adapted  to  the  peach  tree,  and  the  reason  is  not  hard  to 
find.  Frequently,  when  the  temperature  in  the  valleys  and  on  the 
levels  is  15°  to  25°  below  zero,  it  will  be  only  8°  to  10°  below  zero 


220  ORCHARD   CROPS 

on  the  sides  of  the  hills,  and  perhaps  only  zero  at  the  top.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cold,  heavy  atmosphere  settles  down  to 
the  lowest  places,  while  the  warm,  light  atmosphere  is  forced  up- 
ward towards  the  hilltops.  For  the  same  reason,  frost  often 
kills  vegetation  of  the  early  spring  in  the  valleys,  while  plants 
on  the  ridges  and  hills  will  be  uninjured. 

Some  of  the  leading  peach-producing  States  are  the  Lake  States, 
the  Gulf  States,  Southern  States,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Oklahoma, 
New  Mexico,  Colorado,  California,  Delaware,  and  New  Jersey. 
There  are  probably  nearly  two  hundred  million  peach  trees  grown 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of  peaches:  (1)  the  soft  or  free- 
stone peaches,  and  (2)  the  plum  or  clingstone  peaches. 

Peaches  are  propagated  by  budding  and  are  grafted  upon  seedling 
stocks.  In  transplanting,  the  trees  are  set  twenty  feet  apart  each 
way,  as  a  rule,  and  this  will  require  one  hundred  and  eight  trees  to 
the  acre.  When  they  are  set  only  fifteen  feet  apart,  one  hundred 
and  ninety-three  trees  to  the  acre  will  be  required. 

Peaches  are  eaten  raw,  and  are  also  used  in  making  pies,  brandy, 
preserves,  and  in  canning.  Many  peaches  are  also  dried,  or  evapo- 
rated, and  are  placed  on  the  market  in  this  form. 

Nectarines.  — The  nectarine  is  simply  a  peach  having  a  per- 
fectly smooth  skin.  The  tree  has  the  same  pink  flowers  and  the 
same  shaped  leaves  as  the  ordinary  peach.  The  nectarine  is 
very  susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  the  curculio  and  the  peach- 
tree  borer,  and  must  have  close  attention  if  success  is  expected. 
Like  the  peach,  it  requires  a  soil  of  only  moderate  fertility.  Lime, 
potash,  and  phosphates  are  the  elements  on  which  the  tree  draws 
largely,  and  hence  applications  of  bone  dust  and  wood  ashes  will 
be  found  helpful  to  the  soil. 

The  Plum.  —  The  plum  tree  is  probably  a  native  of  Asia,  but 
the  numerous  varieties  now  grown  in  this  country  come  from 
three  species:  One  was  found  growing  in  North  America  when 
the  early  explorers  discovered  the  mainland,  another  was  brought 
from  China  and  Japan,  and  a  third  one  from  Europe.  The 
plum  is  a  near  relative  of  the  peach,  but  is  distinguished  from 
it  by  its  beautiful  white  flowers,  its  size,  its  smooth-skinned  fruit, 
and  in  many  other  particulars. 


ORCHARD    CROPS  221 

The  best  soil  for  the  plum  is  a  moderately  rich  clay  loam.  The 
European  varieties  are  adapted  to  the  Northern  States,  the  Japan- 
ese and  Chinese  varieties  to  the  Southern  States,  while  the  native 
stocks  thrive  the  best  in  other  parts  of  our  country. 

The  chief  commercial  uses  of  the  plum  are  in  making  preserves, 
plum  butter,  and  prunes,  or  dried  plums.  Only  the  large, 
sweet  varieties  are  used  for  prunes.  These  are  grown  principally 
in  California,  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Idaho.  In  making  prunes, 
the  fruit  is  first  washed  in  warm  water,  and  then  dipped  into  a 
mild  solution  of  lye  to  crack  the  skin,  and  thus  hasten  the  drying 
or  curing  process.  The  drying  may  be  done  either  in  the  sun 
or  by  artificial  heat. 

The  apricot  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  China,  Armenia,  and  Japan. 
Its  fruit  resembles  both  the  plum  and  the  peach.  The  skin  is 
smooth  like  that  of  the  nectarine,  its  pulp  is  somewhat  like  that 
of  the  peach,  while  it  has  the  smooth  stone  so  characteristic  of  the 
plum.  It  is  an  attractive  ornamental  tree,  with  glossy,  heart- 
shaped  leaves  and  white  blossoms.  The  apricot  was  introduced 
into  California  by  the  early  Mission  Fathers,  and  it  is  grown  more 
largely  there  than  in  any  other  State.  Arkansas,  Texas,  Okla- 
homa, New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Florida,  Louisi- 
ana, Kansas,  and  New  York  also  grow  a  great  many  apricots. 

Apricots  are  used  in  making  jellies  and  tarts,  and  they  are  also 
excellent  when  dried  or  canned. 

The  cherry  has  been  known  since  the  days  of  the  ancient 
Romans.  It  is  said  that  Lucullus,  one  of  the  Roman  generals, 
brought  the  fruit  from  Asia  to  Rome,  and  from  that  place  it  grad- 
ually spread  all  over  Europe,  and  from  Europe  it  was  brought  to 
America.  There  are  a  number  of  native  species  in  the  United 
States  known  as  the  wild  cherry.  The  black  cherry  is  valued 
chiefly  for  its  timber,  whicji  takes  a  high  polish.  It  also  makes 
an  ornamental  tree  for  parks  and  lawns.  Its  bark  contains 
valuable  medicinal  properties,  and  is  used  much  in  the  preparation 
of  cough  sirups  and  tonics. 

The  domestic  cherry  trees  are  of  two  general  varieties,  which 
are  both  of  European  origin:  the  morellos,  which  are  hardy  and 
produce  sour  fruit,  and  the  hearts,  which  produce  a  sweet-flavored 
fruit.  The  morellos  are  grown  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 


222 


ORCHARD   CROPS 


States,  and  especially  in  New  York,  and  are  largely  used  for 
canning  purposes.  The  sweet-fruited  varieties  are  grown  chiefly 
on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  morellos,  or  sour-fruited  varieties, 
seem  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  Southern  States. 

In  China,  and  especially  in  Japan,  there  are  some  varieties  of 
cherries  that  are  cultivated  only  for  their  flowers.  The  Japanese 
hold  picnics  and  outdoor  parties  under  the  cherry  trees,  and 
their  young  people  treasure  up  many  pleasant  memories  and  asso- 
ciations in  connection  with  these  beautiful  and  attractive  trees. 
The  quince  was  known  to  the  early  Greeks  and  Romans  and 
was  highly  esteemed  by  them  as  an  article  of  food.  The  tree 
is  small,  hardy,  and  of  medium  height,  with  ovate  leaves,  and 
white  or  pale  pink  flowers.  Its  fruit  resembles  the  apple  or  pear, 
and  when  ripe  it  is  of  a  rich  golden  yellow  color.  It  cannot  be 
eaten  raw,  but  is  usually  served  either  baked  or  stewed.  Its 
chief  commercial  value  is  for  making  preserves  and  marmalade. 

Quince  trees  are  propagated   from  the  seed,  by  layers,  and 
by  slips  or  cuttings,  made  in  the  spring,  at  the  time  the  buds 

pass  from  their  dormant  state 
and  begin  swelling.  A  few  scat- 
tering trees  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  United  States,  but 
the  most  important  quince 
orchards  are  found  in  western 
New  York. 

The  olive  is  one  of  the  oldest 
fruits  known  to  man,  for  the 
Bible  records  state  that  the  dove 
which  Noah  sent  forth  from  the 
ark  after  the  floods  began  to 
subside  came  back  with  an  olive 
leaf  in  its  mouth.  Among  the 
ancient  nations,  the  olive  branch 
was  regarded  as  the  symbol  of 
peace  and  friendship. 

The  olive  is  a  low-branching 
evergreen  tree,  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  high,  with  dark  green  leaves 
and  yellowish  green  fruit,  which  turns  black  when  ripe.  The  tree 


Olives. 


ORCHARD   CROPS 


223 


is  a  native  of  Greece,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The  world's  supply  of 
olives  is  grown  in  Algeria,  Tunis,  Italy,  France,  Spain,  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  Mexico,  Peru,  California,  Louisiana,  Florida,  Georgia, 
and  South  Carolina. 

Olive  trees  are  propagated  from  sprouts  or  cuttings,  which, 
after  being  placed  in  beds  of  moist  sand  and  roots  have  developed, 
are  set  out  thirty  to  forty  feet  apart  each  way.  They  do  not  begin 
to  bear  profitable  crops  until  they  are  six  to  eight  years  old, 
when  the  yield  is  about  six  gallons  of  oil  to  the  tree ;  and  this 
gradually  increases  from  year  to  year,  until  the  maximum  yield 
of  fifty  gallons  is  reached. 

The  profitable  bearing  term  covers  a  period  varying  from 
thirty  to  fifty  years,  but  olive  trees  usually  live  to  be  several 
hundred  years  old.  The  ripe  or  black  olives  are  used  for  making 
olive  oil,  and  the  green  olives  are  sorted,  graded,  and  pickled  for 
table  use.  They  are  put  up  in  bottles,  tubs,  and  barrels,  and 
shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Olive  oil  is  used  in  making  salads  and  dressings,  also  in  manu- 
facturing soap.     In   some   of    the   countries    bordering  on   the 
Mediterranean  Sea 
it  is  used  in  place  of 
butter  in  cooking. 

The  Orange.  - 
The  orange  tree  is 
a  native  of  Asia, 
but  it  is  now  ex- 
tensively grown  in 
Florida,  and  the 
Gulf  Coast  country 
of  Louisiana,  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi, 
Georgia,  Texas, 
California,  and  in 
the  Salt  River 

Orange  tree,  Florida. 

Valley  of  Arizona. 

Portugal,  Spain,  Sicily,  Asia  Minor,  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  the 
Philippines,  South  America,  China,  and  Japan  also  furnish  large 
quantities.  The  tree  grows  to  a  height  of  some  twenty  or  thirty 


224  ORCHARD   CROPS 

feet  and  bears  bright  green,  glossy  leaves  and  highly  fragrant 
flowers.  Its  fruit  is  of  a  golden  or  yellow  color,  and  is  about  th° 
size  of  an  apple.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  sight  to  see  an  orange 
tree  which  has  buds  just  beginning  to  swell,  flowers  in  full  bloom, 
green  fruit,  and  ripe  fruit,  all  at  the  same  time. 

The  trees  generally  begin  bearing  in  February,  and  the  fruit 
continues  to  ripen  until  the  summer  season  is  well  advanced.  The 
oranges  are  carefully  clipped,  or  cut,  from  the  branches  of  the 
tree,  and  gently  placed  in  a  sack,  carried  by  the  picker.  When 
the  sacks  are  filled,  they  are  emptied  into  baskets  or  carrying 
boxes,  ready  to  be  carried  to  the  packing  house.  There  the 
oranges  are  cleaned,  sorted,  wrapped  in  tissue  paper,  and  packed 
in  shipping  boxes,  ready  for  transportation  to  the  large  market 
centers.  In  each  box  from  sixty  to  three  hundred  oranges 
are  packed  according  to  their  sizes.  The  large  oranges  are  gen- 
erally inferior  in  flavor  and  quality  to  the  oranges  of  medium  size. 

There  are  about  seventy-five  varieties  of  oranges,  which  fall 
into  two  general  classes  :  (1)  the  bitter  oranges,  and  (2)  the 
sweet  oranges.  The  seedless  navel  orange,  grown  in  Florida, 
Arizona,  and  California,  was  brought  in  1870  from  Bahia,  Brazil, 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  It  is  now  one 
of  our  most  popular  oranges. 

The  trees  are  budded  in  the  nursery,  where  they  remain  for 
two  years,  then  they  are  set  out  in  the  orchard  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  feet  apart.  The  trees  begin  to  bear  when  they  are  about 
five  years  old,  and  if  properly  cultivated  and  cared  for,  they 
continue  to  bear  for  half  a  century  or  more. 

The  orange  thrives  the  best  in  a  deep,  fertile  loam  along  the 
banks  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  other  water  courses.  Growth  is  espe- 
cially stimulated  by  applying  to  the  soil  fertilizers  containing  lime. 

Oranges  are  highly  esteemed  as  a  dessert  and  for  making 
orange  jelly,  orangeade,  orange  sirup,  and  extracts. 

The  Lemon.  —  Lemon  trees  are  grown  from  lemon  buds, 
grafted  on  sour  orange  stocks.  They  have  light-colored  leaves 
and  flowers  tinged  with  red,  and  bear  a  pale  yellow  fruit  with  a 
sour  or  acid  flavor.  Lemons  are  used  for  flavoring  extracts  and 
sirups,  and  for  making  lemonade.  They  are  cultivated,  picked, 
packed,  and  shipped  in  the  same  manner  as  oranges. 


ORCHARD   CROPS  225 

The  lime  grows  wild  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  India,  and  is 
somewhat  like  the  lemon.  Limes  are  now  grown  and  cultivated 
in  the  West  Indies,  Florida,  the  southern  parts  of  the  Gulf  States, 
parts  of  Mexico,  and  other  tropical  countries.  The  tree  is  thorny, 
and  it  bears  white  flowers  somewhat  smaller  than  those  of  the 
lemon.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  an  apricot  and  is  of  a  pale 
greenish  yellow  color.  It  has  a  decided  acid  flavor. 

The  grape  fruit  tree  looks  very  much  like  an  orange  tree  in 
its  general  make-up,  but  it  bears  a  large  globular  fruit  with 
heavy,  thick  rind.  The  flesh  is  of  a  whiter  texture  than  the  orange, 
and  is  somewhat  sour  and  bitter.  It  is -served  raw  as  a  dessert 
and  is  also  used  in  making  preserves.  It  is  grown  in  Florida, 
California,  Arizona,  the  Gulf  States,  Mexico,  and  other  tropical 
countries.  The  grape  fruit  is  a  native  of  the  Malayan  and  Poly- 
nesian islands,  but  it  readily  adapts  itself  to  practically  all  regions 
where  oranges  are  grown. 

The  fig  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  Africa  and  has  been  cultivated 
from  the  very  earliest  times.  It  grows  well  in  Florida,  Arizona, 
California,  and  in  nearly  all  the  low  country  of  Georgia,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Texas.  The  tree  is  propagated  from 
cuttings  from  the  roots  planted  in  the  fall  or  spring.  The  trees 
are  usually  set  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  apart,  and  they  begin 
to  bear  the  second  year.  Figs  are  sold  raw  for  cooking  purposes, 
but  many  of  them  are  dried  and  packed  in  boxes  for  shipment. 
They  are  also  used  for  making  extracts  and  sirups. 

Dates.  —  The  date  palm  thrives  the  best  in  Asia  and  Africa, 
but  it  has  now  been  found  that  it  will  grow  successfully  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Arizona.  Its  commercial  value  in  these  States  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  will  grow  in  regions  thought  to  be  worthless  for 
farming,  and  that  it  will  endure  more  heat,  drought,  and  alkali 
than  any  other  plant.  The  date  palms  begin  to  bear  at  five 
years  of  age,  but  do  not  come  into  full  bearing  until  they  are  ten 
or  twelve  years  old,  and  they  continue  to  bear  for  a  hundred 
years  or  more.  Each  plant  when  mature  will  bear  from  three 
hundred  to  five  hundred  pounds  of  dates.  The  world's  supply  of 
dates  comes  chiefly  from  the  Persian  Gulf  regions  in  Asia,  but 
some  reach  us  from  Egypt,  Sahara,  and  adjacent  regions. 

The    guava    tree  in  its   size  and    general   appearance  is  very 

PR  A  P.    AGRICFL. 15 


226 


ORCHARD  CROPS 


much  like  an  ordinary  plum  tree.  It  bears  white,  fragrant 
flowers  and  a  yellow-skinned  fruit.  The  pulp  is  crimson  or 
yellow,  with  a  pleasant  acid  taste.  When  raw  there  is  a  faint 
suspicion  of  onion  flavor  to  the  fruit.  It  is  much  prized  for 
desserts,  cooking,  and  preserving,  and  also  for  making  jellies 
and  marmalades.  The  guava  tree  is  propagated  by  seeds,  layers, 
and  cuttings.  It  'grows  in  Florida,  California,  Mexico,  West 
Indies,  South  America,  and  other  tropical  lands. 

The  mango  is  distinctly  a  tropical  fruit,  which  grows' in  Florida, 
Central  America,  South  America,  the  East  Indies,  and  in  the 
Philippines.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  apple  of  the  south.  The 


Boat  load  of  bananas,  Central  America. 

mango  tree  is  large  and  spreading,  with  long,  lacelike  leaves.  Its 
flowers  grow  in  clusters  at  the  end  of  the  branches,  and  its  fruit 
is  about  the  size  of  a  cucumber  or  goose  egg  and  varies  in  color 
from  green  to  yellow.  The  usual  methods  of  propagating  the 
mango  are  by  budding,  grafting,  and  by  growing  from  seeds. 

The  banana  plant  looks  very  much  like  a  mammoth  cornstalk, 
about  a  foot  through  and  from  ten  to  forty  feet  high.  At  the  top 
of  the  stalk  is  a  crown  of  pinnately  veined  leaves  which  spread 
out  and  bend  over  like  an  open  umbrella.  These  bladelike 
leaves  are  not  infrequently  from  six  to  ten  feet  long.  The  fruit 


ORCHARD   CROPS  227 

grows  in  clusters  bearing  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  bananas. 
Each  plant  bears  but  one  bunch  and  then  dies  down  to  the 
ground. 

Bananas  are  grown  in  southern  Florida,  Louisiana,  and  Cali- 
fornia, and  are  shipped  to  the  United  States  and  Canada  in  great 
quantities  from  the  West  Indies,  Central  America,  Mexico,  and 
other  tropical  lands. 

Pineapples  are  grown  by  setting  out  suckers  which  grow  at 
the  base  of  the  fruit  or  from  the  bunch  of  leaves  growing  at  the 
top.  The  plant  is  low,  attaining  a  height  of  only  a  few  inches, 
and  produces  sword-shaped  leaves,  in  the  center  of  which  the 
pineapple  is  found.  This  fruit  is  generally  from  six  to  ten  inches 
long  and  from  four  to  five  inches  thick.  Its  weight  varies  from 
three  to  twenty  pounds,  according  to  the  size.  It  is  grown 
in  tropical  countries  chiefly,  but  our  supply  in  the  United  States 
comes  from  the  West  Indies,  the  Bahama  Islands,  Florida,  and 
California. 

The  persimmon  is  found  growing  wild  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  especially  in  Virginia,  but  it  has  been  only 
within  recent  years  that  any  attempt  has  been  made  to  cultivate 
or  improve  any  of  the  wild  varieties.  We  now  have  more  than 
a  dozen  cultivated  varieties  which  produce  excellent  fruit.  The 
tree  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  plum  tree  and  the  fruit  is  about 
as  large  around  as  a  silver  twenty-five-cent  piece,  and  when  ripe 
it  is  of  a  reddish  golden  color.  It  is  excellent  when  eaten  raw, 
and  when  dried  it  has  a  flavor  somewhat  like  that  of  dates. 

The  papaw  known  in  the  United  States  is  a  shrub  or  tree  found 
growing  in  the  Southern  and  Western  States.  The  tree  has  obovate 
lanceolate  leaves,  and  it  bears  a  yellowish  pulpy  fruit  about  as 
large  around  as  a  banana,  but  only  about  half  as  long.  The  pulp  is 
surrounded  by  a  light,  thin,  green  skin,  which  is  easily  broken  when 
the  fruit  is  ripe.  The  flavor  of  the  fruit  is  generally  improved 
by  frost.  Experiments  made  with  the  papaw  indicate  that  it 
is  susceptible  of  great  improvement  under  cultivation  and  careful 
handling.  In  the  wild  papaw  the  objectionable  features  are 
its  thin  skin,  which  prevents  its  being  shipped  successfully,  and 
its  extra  large  seeds,  which  make  up  so  much  of  the  bulk  of  the 
fruit. 


228  ORCHARD   CROPS 

EXERCISES 

1.  Which  do  you  consider  the  more  valuable,  apples  or  pears  ?     Why  ? 

2.  Which  is  the  more  valuable  crop,  peaches  or  apricots  ?     Why  ? 

3.  In  setting  out  cherry  trees  how  many  trees  should  be  set  to  the  acre  ? 

4.  Estimate  the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre  for  (a)  apples,  (6)  pears, 

(c)  peaches,  (c?)  orangos. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  some  of  the  orchard  crops. 

2.  Discuss  apple  culture. 

3.  How  are  apple  trees  propagated  ? 

4.  Name  some  of  the  uses  of  apples. 

5.  Discuss  pear  culture. 

6.  Name  some  of  the  uses  of  pears. 

7.  Discuss  peach  culture. 

8.  Describe  the  nectarine. 

9.  Discuss  the  plum  and  its  culture. 

10.  Give  a  brief  history  of  the  apricot. 

11.  Name  some  of  the  uses  of  apricots. 

12.  Give  a  brief  history  of  the  cherry. 

13.  Discuss  the  growing  and  marketing  of  cherries. 

14.  Describe  the  quince  and  its  fruit. 

15.  Discuss  the  Olive  industry. 

16.  Give  a  brief  history  of  the  orange. 

17.  Describe  the  manner  of  packing  and  shipping  oranges. 

18.  What  can  you  say  of  the  varieties  of  oranges  ? 

19.  How  are  lemon  trees  propagated? 

20.  Name  some  of  the  uses  of  the  lemon. 

21.  Discuss  (a)  the  grape  fruit,  (6)  the  fig,  (c)  the  lime. 

22.  Discuss  the  culture  and  value  of  (a)  dates,  (6)  guavas,  (c)  mangoes, 

(d)  bananas,  (e)  pineapples,  (/)  the  persimmon. 

REFERENCES 

American  Fruit  Culturist,  John  J.  Thomas. 

How  the  World  is  Fed  (Industrial  Reader),  Carpenter. 

Plums  and  Plum  Culture,  F.  A.  Waugh. 

Pear  Culture  for  Profit,  P.  T.  Quinn. 

Quince  Culture,  W.  W.  Meech. 

Peach  Culture,  J.  Alexander  Fulton. 

Field  Notes  on  Apple  Culture,  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Citrus  Fruits  and  their  Culture,  H.  H.  Hume, 


XXXIV.     NUT  CROPS 

NUTS  constitute  an  important  part  of  man's  food.  They  are 
rich  and  nutritious,  and  should  always  be  given  a  place  among 
our  articles  of  diet.  There  are  several  kinds  of  nut  trees  which 
are  highly  esteemed  as  ornamental  shade  trees,  as  well  as  for  the 
valuable  fruit  they  yield. 

Some  of  the  leading  varieties  are  the  almond,  English  walnut, 
white  walnut  or  butternut,  hickory  nut,  pecan,  chinquapin,  chest- 
nut, hazelnut,  cocoanut,  and  Brazil  nut. 


Almond  trees. 

The  almond  tree  looks  very  much  like  a  peach  tree  in  its  size, 
foliage,  and  flowers;  but  its  fruit  has  hardly  any  flesh,  and  almost 
its  whole  bulk  consists  of  the  stone  or  seed.  When  the  fruit  ripens, 
the  skin  breaks  open  and  the  pulp  dries  up.  The  nuts  fall  to 
the.  ground  and  are  then  gathered  and  put  in  sacks  ready  for 
shipment. 

220 


230  NUT   CROPS 

Almonds  are  grown  in  the  Orient,  in  Florida,  and  in  California, 
but  the  most  of  our  supply  comes  from  Spain  and  countries 
near  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Almonds  are  used  in  cooking,  con- 
fectionery, and  medicine.  The  bitter  varieties  are  used  in  making 
perfumery  and  flavoring  extracts. 

The  English  walnut  is  a  lofty  tree,  which  begins  to  bear  profitably 
when  it  is  about  six  years  old  and  continues  to  be  fruitful  for  a 
period  of  twenty  to  thirty  years.  Walnut  trees  are  grown  in 
Spain,  England,  Italy,  and  France,  and  also  in  California. 

The  black  walnut  grows  wild  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States;  it  is  valuable  for  its  timber  as  well  as  for  its  fruit.  It 
grows  to  a  moderate  height  and  makes  an  ornamental  shade  tree. 
The  nuts  grow  to  the  size  of  a  silver  dollar,  but  in  the  fall  when 
cold  weather  approaches  the  outer  green,  pulplike  covering  turns 
brown  or  black  and  shrivels  up,  and  the  walnuts  fall  to  the  ground. 

The  Japan  walnut  is  another  variety  which  forms  an  ornamental 
shade  tree ;  its  fruit  has  a  delicious  flavor. 

The  butternut  or  white  walnut  is  a  native  American  tree 
which  bears  a  nut  with  a  thick,  rough  shell  and  a  fine-flavored 
kernel. 

The  hickory  tree  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
especially  in  New  England  and  in  the  Southern  and  Western 
States.  It  makes  a  beautiful  shade  tree,  and  bears  an  excellent 
fruit,  sweet  and  wholesome.  The  nut  is  enveloped  in  a  husk,  which 
splits  into  four  thick  and  hard  valves  when  the  fruit  is  mature. 
The  kernel  is  surrounded  with  a  thin,  flesh-colored  or  yellowish 
shell.  Hickory  trees  are  now  propagated  only  from  seed. 

The  pecan  grows  wild  in  many  parts  of  our  country  and  is  culti- 
vated in  Oklahoma,  Texas,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Florida,  Louisiana, 
and  other  southern  States.  Pecans  may  be  propagated  from  the 
seed,  but  budding  and  grafting  usually  give  the  most  satisfactory 
results.  The  trees  when  under  cultivation  are  usually  set  about 
forty  feet  apart.  They  begin  to  bear  when  they  are  about  six 
years  old  and  continue  bearing  for  twenty  or  thirty  years.  There 
are  many  valuable  varieties,  but  the  most  satisfactory  variety 
seems  to  be  the  Louisiana  or  Texas  paper  shell.  Pecans  make 
ornamental  shade  trees.  The  nut  is  of  a  rich  chocolate  color. 

The  chinquapin  is  usually  a  shrub  or  a  tree  of  low  height,  which 


NUT  CROPS 


231 


grows  wild  in  the  hilly  region  from  Virginia  to  Alabama  and  thence 
westward  through  eastern  Oklahoma  and  Texas.  The  nuts  are 
small  and  have  a  fine  flavor.  The  kernel  is  enveloped  in  a  shell 
of  a  rich  mahogany  color. 

The  chestnut  is  a  large  forest  tree  bearing  sweet  brown  nuts  in- 
closed in  prickly  burrs.  Its  named  varieties  are  propagated  by 
grafts  which  usually  begin  to  bear  the  second  year.  It  is  common 
to  parts  of  Europe  and  America. 

Hazelnuts  grow  on  shrubs  from  four  to  six  feet  high,  which 
group  themselves  in  thickets.  They  are  found  extending  from 
the  New  England  States  west- 
ward to  North  Dakota  and 
thence  southward  to  the  Gulf. 
The  nut  is  of  a  light  brown 
color  except  at  one  end,  which 
has  a  circular  spot  of  a  light 
color.  It  is  used  in  making  con- 
fectionery and  is  also  valuable 
as  a  forage  crop  for  hogs. 

The  acorn  is  the  nut  of  the 
oak  and  it  is  of  no  special  com- 
mercial value  except  as  a  feed 
for  hogs. 

The  cocoanut  is  the  fruit  of 
the  cocoanut  palm,  which  is 
widely  distributed  in  all  tropi- 
cal countries,  but  is  never 
found  growing  very  far  from  the  sea  unless  transplanted  by  man. 
It  has  a  trunk  varying  from  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter,  which 
rises  to  a  height  varying  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet.  At  the 
top  it  bears  a  crown  of  pinnate  leaves  which  curve  downward. 

It  begins  to  bear  when  about  seven  years  old  and  continues 
fruitful  for  fifty  or  sixty  years.  The  cocoanuts  grow  in  bunches 
of  five  to  fifteen  at  the  top  of  the  trunk,  and  a  mature  tree  will 
produce  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  cocoanuts  annually. 

The  cocoanut  palm  is  propagated  by  seed,  the  nuts  being  placed 
in  holes  about  two  feet  deep,  but  only  partly  covered  with  soil. 
As  the  young  seedling  grows  upward,  the  hole  is  gradually  filled 


Cocoanuts. 


232 


NUT  CROPS 


until  it  is  level  with  the  surface.     Finally  the  seedlings  are  trans- 
planted to  the  field  or  grove  and  set  out  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet 

apart  each  way.  The  cocoanut 
tree  thrives  along  the  coast 
country  of  southern  Florida, 
and  extensive  plantations  are 
found  in  that  part  of  the  State. 
The  chief  uses  of  the  cocoa- 
nut  are  for  making  candy  and 
cake  and  as  a  flavoring  for 
fruit  desserts.  It  also  furnishes 
an  oil  valuable  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap. 

The  Brazil  nut  grows  along 
the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon 
rivers  in  South  America.  The 
tree  often  rises  to  a  height 
ranging  from  ona  hundred  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet, 
and  it  has  magnificent  foliage 

Cocoanut  palms.  Qf  large  ^ 

oily  nuts  are  triangular  in  shape  with  a  hard  shell, 
tightly  packed  together  in  a  spherical  covering. 

COMPOSITION  OF   NUTS 


They  are  borne 


WATER 

PROTEID 

FAT 

CARBO-        CELLU- 
HYDRATES       LOSE 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

Chestnuts   (fresh)     .     . 
Chestnuts   (dried)    .     t 
Walnuts  (fresh)    .    .     . 
Walnuts  (dried)   .    .     . 
Filberts    and    hazels 
(fresh)       .    . 

38.5 

5.8 
44.5 
4.6 

48  0 

6.6 
10.1 
12.0 
15.6 

8  0 

8.0 

10.0 
31.6 
62.6 

28  5 

45.2 
71.4 
9.4       -   0.8 

7.4    —   7.8 

115           25 

1.7 
2.7 
1.7 
2.0 

1  5 

Filberts    and    hazels 
(dried)       .... 

3  7 

14  9 

66  4 

97    —   32 

1  8 

Sweet  almonds    .    .     . 
Pistachio  kernels      .     . 
Cocoanut  (fleshy  part) 
Cocoanut  (dried)      .     . 
Cocoanut  (milk)       .     . 

6.0 
7.4 
46.6 
3.5 
90.3 

24.0 
21.7 
5.2 
6.0 
0.5 

54.0 
51.1 
35.9 
57.4 

10.0       -   3.0 
14.0       -   2.5 
8.4    -•-   2.9 
31.8 
9.0 

3.0 
3.3 
1.0 
1.3 

NUT  CROPS  233 


EXERCISES 

t.   Ascertain  the  value  at  your  home  market  of  (a)  almonds,  (6)  walnuts, 
(c)  hickory  nuts,  {d)  pecans. 

2.  Compare  the  relative  food  valves  and  costs  of  the  list  given  in  No.  1. 

3.  Consult  the  table  in  reference  to  Ihe  food  composition  of  nuts  and 
calculate  the  relative  amounts  of  fifty  pounds  each  of  fresh  walnuts  and 
chestnuts  in  (a)  water,  (6)  proteids,  (c)  fat. 

4.  Compare  the  amount  of  proteids  in  seventy-five  pounds  of  sweet 
almonds  with  that  found  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  fresh  walnuts. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  some  of  the  leading  varieties  of  nuts. 

2.  Discuss  the  almond  industry. 

3.  Discuss  the  growing  and  marketing  of  walnuts  and  hickory  nuts. 

4.  Describe  briefly  (a)  the  pecan,  (6)  the  chinquapin,  (c)  the  chestnut. 

5.  Discuss  (a)  hazelnuts,  (6)  acorns. 

6.  What  can  you  say  of  the  cocoanut  industry  ? 

7.  Describe  the  Brazil  nut. 

8.  Discuss  the  food  value  of  nuts. 

REFERENCES 

How  the  World  is  fed  (Industrial  Reader),  Carpenter. 

The  Nut  Culturist,  Andrew  S.  Fuller. 

Food  and  Dietetics,  Robert  Hutchinson. 

Nuts  and  Their  Uses  as  Food,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  332.  . 


XXXV.    FLOWER  GARDENING 

THE  laying  out  of  the  flower  garden  is  an  important  matter, 
but  it  rarely  receives  the  attention  it  deserves. 

A  good  way  to  lay  off  a  flower  garden  is  to  follow  a  nrtural 
arrangement  as  far  as  possible.  Do  not  fill  the  lawn  up  closely 
with  bushes  and  shrubs,  but  leave  the  space  in  front  of  the  house 
almost  entirely  open. 

The  lawn  should  be  set  in  blue  grass  or  Bermuda  grass  and  white 
clover,  and  a  border  of  low  flowering  plants  along  the  walk  may 
prove  attractive.  Shrubs  should  be  planted  along  the  fence  and 
near  the  walls  of  the  house  where  they  will  not  obstruct  the  view 
from  the  windows.  All  unsightly  objects  should  be  screened  by  a 
cover  of  tall  shrubbery  or  vines.  The  honeysuckle,  the  crimson 
rambler,  the  Cherokee  rose,  and  the  purple  wistaria  will  be  found 
useful  for  this  purpose  as  well  as  for  the  shade  they  make.  The 
appearance  of  the  shrubbery  will  be  greatly  improved  if  the  shrubs 
are  bordered  with  flower  beds  of  attractive  design. 

Morning  glories  or  four  o'clocks  give  a  pleasing  effect  when 
planted  along  the  fence.  Chrysanthemums  may  be  used  to  good 
advantage  along  the  sides  of  the  house  to  cover  up  and  screen 
unsightly  foundations.  The  trees  should  be  grouped  along  the 
sides  of  the  yard  and  in  the  rear.  The  view  from  the  front  lawn 
should  in  general  be  left  free  and  unobstructed. 

The  flower  garden  should  be  made  in  the  back  yard  or  at  the 
side  of  the  house.  The  plants  selected  should  be  hardy  and  self- 
reliant  and  of  such  a  nature  that  a  constant  succession  of  flowers 
may  be  had  from  season  to  season.  Among  the  early  spring 
flowers  are  the  jonquils,  sweet  violet,  Japan  quince,  peri- 
winkles, early  narcissus,  daffodils,  blue  hyacinths,  bridal  wreaths, 
wistaria,  snowball,  white  iris,  and  some  of  the  early  varieties  of  lilies. 
Among  those  that  grow  during  the  warm  dry  season  are  the 
hollyhocks,  four-o'clocks,  larkspurs,  mallows,  phlox,  bachelor's 
buttons,  and  black-eyed  Susans.  Among  the  fall  flowers  are  the 

234 


FLOWER  GARDENING  235 

chrysanthemums,   verbenas,    scarlet   sage,    canna,   cosmos,   and 
marigolds. 

Classification  of  Flower  Garden  Plants.  —  In  a  general  way 
we  may  group  the  plants  ordinarily  found  in  flower  gardens  as 
follows:  (1)  shrubs,  (2)  bulbs,  (3)  corms,  (4)  tubers,  (5)  rhizomes, 
(6)  herbs,  (7)  vines.  By  a  proper  combination  of  these  plants  we 
may  have  beautiful  lawns  and  flower  gardens  from  early  in  the 
spring  until  late  in  the  fall. 

Shrubs.  —  There  are  many  kinds  of  shrubs  that  can  be  grown 
easily,  but  one  of  the  most  common  and  satisfactory  shrubs  will 
be  found  in  the  common  lilac.  It  makes  an  ornamental  bush  and 
bears  great  bunches  of  fragrant  lavender-colored  flowers.  It 
requires  but  little  care,  grows  rapidly,  and  is  healthy  and  long- 
lived.  The  Japan  quince  with  its  glossy  foliage  and  rich  scarlet 
flowers  makes  a  good  hedge  or  border  screen.  The  weigelias  with 
their  large  bushes  loaded  down  with  red,  rose,  and  white  flowers  in 
June  and  July  always  prove  attractive  wherever  they  may  be 
placed.  The  double-flowering  plum,  the  flowering  almond,  and 
the  flowering  currant  are  also  very  attractive  shrubs.  For  late 
blooming  the  hydrangea  will  be  found  very  satisfactory.  The 
syringa  or  mock  orange  is  a  popular  plant  which  grows  to  a 
height  of  eight  or  ten  feet  and  bears  fragrant  white  flowers  in  great 
profusion.  The  flowering  sumach,  the  purple-leaved  barberry,  and 
the  elders  are  frequently  used  to  good  effect. 
Besides  the  plants  just  mentioned  there  are 
many  varieties  of  roses  that  should  adorn 
every  lawn  and  garden.  For  porch  screens 
and  arbor  effects  nothing  better  can  be  found 
than  the  crimson  ramblers  interspersed  with 
yellow  and  white  ramblers. 

Bulbs.  —  A  bulb  may  be  regarded  as  a  bud 
with  fleshy  scales  on  a  short  stem.  The  onion 
is  a  good  example  of  a  bulb  with  which  every 
one  is  familiar.  The  bulb  of  the  wild  lily  is  Bujb> 

likewise  a  good  example. 

As  a  rule  they  produce  flowers  earlier  than  other  plants.  The 
snowdrops  begin  to  bloom  at  the  very  beginning  of  spring  and  are 
closely  followed  by  the  hyacinth,  the  narcissus,  and  the  tulip. 


236  FLOWER   GARDENING 

In  warm  climates  bulbs  may  be  set  out  any  time  between  the 
last  of  September  and  the  middle  of  November,  and  this  will  give 
them  time  to  establish  themselves  well  before  the  winter  begins. 
In  cold  climates  the  bulbs  should  be  dug  up  and  stored  where  they 
will  not  freeze. 

In  making  beds  for  bulbs  we  must  have  good  rich  soil  and 
good  drainage.  The  ground  should  be  well  spaded  and  mixed 
thoroughly  with  loam,  sand,  and  well-rotted  manure.  Some  gar- 
deners dig  out  a  deep  pit  and  place  at  the  bottom  of  this  a  loose 
layer  of  coarse  gravel  and  then  fill  the  pit  with  soil  prepared  as 
suggested  above.  This  drains  off  the  surplus  water,  which  would 
hinder  the  growth  of  the  bulbs.  If  the  bulbs  are  left  in  the 
ground  over  winter,  they  should  be  covered  in  the  fall  with  six  to 
eight  inches  of  straw  litter  or  dry  leaves  in  order  to  protect  them 
from  freezing. 

Bulbs  can  be  used  to  good  effect  to  dot  the  border  of  shrubs  and 
rose  bushes,  and  many  prefer  this  arrangement  to  having  them  in 
beds. 

Corms  resemble  bulbs  and  are  often  called  bulbs,  but  they  are 
really  very  short  and  thick  fleshy  subterranean  stems  having 
buds  called  coimels  which  usually  grow  out 
from  the  base   and    become   independent 
corms  in   a  single  season.     Common  ex- 
amples of  corms  are  found  in  the  Indian 
turnip  or  Jack-in-the-pulpit  and  the  crocus. 
In  general,  corms  may  be  handled  in  the 
same  way  as  bulbs.     They  produce  attrac- 
tive showy  spring  flowers  and  should  be 

A  gladiolus  corm.  J 

found  in  every  garden.  The  crocus  is  one 

of  our  earliest  spring  flowers,  which  produces  dense  masses  of 
richly  tinted  blossoms.  Other  attractive  plants  produced  from 
corms  are  the  cyclamen,  the  common  gladiolus,  the  giant-flowered 
gladiolus,  and  the  butterfly  gladiolus. 

Tubers  are  short,  thick  rootstocks  having  eyes  or  buds  along  the 
sides  of  the  underground  stem.  They  grow  best  in  rich,  sandy,  and 
well  drained  soil.  In  this  list  may  be  mentioned  the  different 
varieties  of  begonias  and  the  tuberose. 

A  rhizome  is  a  creeping  stem  or  branch  growing  beneath  the 


FLOWER  GARDENING 


237 


surface  of  the  soil  or  partly  covered  by  it.  A  good  example  is  found 
in  the  common  peppermint  or  in  Solomon's  seal.  The  sweet  flag, 
which  grows  in  wet  grounds  and  sends  up  double-edged,  sword- 
shaped  leaves,  has  an  aromatic  rootstock  and  flowers 
early  in  the  summer.  The  iris,  or  flower-de-luce,  is 
another  good  example  of 
a  hardy  rhizome.  Some 
of  the  best-known  varie- 
ties of  the  iris  are  the 
blue  flag,  the  yellow  iris, 
Japanese  iris,  dwarf  gar- 
den iris,  and  Persian  iris. 
They  are  often  used  for  border  effects  along  walks  and  around 
flower  beds. 

Herbs  are  plants  with  stems  that  die  down  to  the  ground  every 
year  after  blossoming  and  at  the  approach  of  cold  weather.  These 
are  grouped  by  florists  as  annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials,  and 
each  of  these  groups  are  subdivided  in  three  subclasses  as  follows: 


Rhizome. 


GROUP  I 

GROUP  II 

GROUP  III 

A.  Annuals 

B.  Biennials 

P.  Perennials 

1.   T.A.  Tender  Annual. 
Temp.  60°-80° 

Tender  Biennial 
Temp.  60°-80° 

Tender  Perennial 
Temp.  60°-80° 

2.   H.H.A.   Half  Hardy 
Annual 
Temp.  50°-60° 

Half  Hardy 
Biennial 
Temp.  50°-60° 

Half  Hardy 
Perennial 
Temp.  50°-60° 

3.   H.A.    Hardy  Annual 
Temp.  40°-45° 

Hardy  Biennial 
Temp.  40°-45° 

Hardy  Perennial 
Temp.  40°-45° 

Of  the  annuals  there  are  several  hundred  varieties  which  may  be 
grown  with  but  little  difficulty.  The  China  asters,  California 
poppies,  candytuft,  balsams,  hibiscus,  phlox,  petunias,  pinks, 
sweet  peas,  nasturtiums,  verbenas,  morning-glories,  mignonette, 
sweet  alyssum,  chrysanthemums,  datura,  larkspurs,  marigolds,  and 
zinnias  are  annuals  that  may  be  grown  easily.  The  list  of  bien- 


238  FLOWER  GARDENING 

nials  is  not  so  large,  but  the  double  white  canterbury  bell,  the 
double  blue  canterbury  bell,  and  the  foxglove  usually  give  very 
satisfactory  results. 

The  list  of  perennials  is  quite  large  and  some  of  them  should 
be  found  in  every  flower  garden.  Among  those  that  may  be  grown  • 
easily  are  the  carnations,  bluebells,  coleus,  cyclamen,  dahlia, 
forget-me-nots,  geraniums,  hollyhocks,  oxalis,  peony,  perennial 
phlox,  Japanese  bellflower,  petunias,  pinks,  smilax,  snapdragon, 
sweet  William,  and  verbena. 

Vines.  —  A  very  graceful  finish  may  be  given  to  the  porch  or  to 
the  sides  of  the  house  by  a  judicious  arrangement  of  vines  or  climb- 
ers. The  morning-glory  and  the  cypress  vine  are  strong,  rapid 
growers.  The  Japan  hopvine  and  the  flowering  bean  have  also  been 
found  quite  serviceable  in  some  parts  of  our  country.  The  latter 
has  rich  scarlet  flowers  which  are  very  attractive.  The  Dutch- 
man's pipe,  the  bignonia  with  its  rich,  glossy,  green  leaves  and 
orange-scarlet  flowers,  the  various  kinds  of  honeysuckle  vines,  the 
clematis,  and  the  wistaria  with  its  long  purplish  blue  or  white 
flowers,  are  all  valuable  climbing  plants.  They  will  be  found  ser- 
viceable as  screens  for  fences,  back  yard  walls,  arches,  arbors,  and 
covered  walks. 

Care  of  Flowering  and  Ornamental  Plants.  —  It  is  not  enough  to 
set  out  plants  and  then  leave  them  to  shift  for  themselves,  but 
they  must  be  given  careful  attention  from  time  to  time.  All 
weeds  must  be  removed  as  fast  as  they  appear,  and  the  soil  must 
be  kept  loose  on  the  top  so  that  it  will  not  form  a  dry,  crusty 
layer.  In  loosening  the  soil  care  must  be  taken  not  to  stir  the 
ground  too  deep. 

The  soil  should  be  enriched  each  growing  season  with  leaf  manure 
or  well-rotted  barnyard  manure  to  which  a  little  sand  and  loam 
have  been  added.  When  the  plant  is  dormant,  no  fertilizer  is 
needed  and  none  should  be  used.  The  dormant  plant  would  be 
excited  by  it  and  would  start  an  unnatural  and  premature  growth. 

For  pot  plants  or  house  plants  occasional  applications  of  liquid 
manure  will  be  found  beneficial.  It  may  be  prepared  by  pouring 
hot  water  over  dry  cow  manure.  When  this  has  drained  off, 
place  the  manure  in  a  flour  barrel  with  loose-fitting  staves  and 
pour  cold  water  upon  the  contents  until  the  liquid  begins  to  run 


FLOWER  GARDENING  239 

out  through  the  openings  of  the  barrel.  This  is  the  liquid  manure 
which  should  be  applied  to  the  soil.  Before  using,  dilute  the  liquid 
until  it  is  of  a  pale  yellowish  amber  color.  Applications  should 
not  as  a  rule  be  made  oftener  than  every  ten  days  or  two  weeks. 
A  teaspoonful  of  bone  meal  or  bone  dust  every  month  is  sometimes 
found  beneficial  to  ordinary  pot  plants. 

Should  the  plant  become  sickly  on  account  of  the  presence  of 
larvae  or  worms  in  the  soil,  it  will  be  found  advisable  to  thoroughly 
saturate  the  soil  with  clear  limewater.  This  will  drive  out  the 
worms  and  will  not  injure  the  plant.  If  no  manure  is  used  without 
being  first  thoroughly  scalded  with  hot  water,  there  will  be  no 
likelihood  of  trouble  from  worms,  as  the  larvae  will  be  killed  by 
this  treatment.  If  the  leaves  become  diseased,  dissolve  some 
copperdine  in  water  and  spray  the  plants  from  time  to  time  until 
the  disease  disappears.  An  occasional  use  of  the  spray  is  also 
advisable  with  healthy  plants  in  order  to  ward  off  diseases  of  a 
bacterial  or  fungous  nature.  A  soapsuds  spray  will  be  found 
effective  as  a  simple  home-made  insecticide.  For  the  mealy 
bug  and  scale,  applications  of  lemon  oil  or  of  fir-tree  oil  will  be 
found  best. 

In  watering  plants  great  care  must  be  taken.  Many  plants  are 
killed  by  overwatering  and  overzealousness  on  the  part  of  amateur 
florists.  Always  stir  the  soil  first  with  your  finger,  and  if  it  appears 
dry  and  dusty  on  top,  the  plant  needs  watering;  if  the  soil  appears 
damp,  heavy,  or  sticky,  the  plant  needs  no  watering.  Plants 
should  be  looked  after  every  day.  Generally  the  best  time  for 
watering  plants  is  late  of  an  evening.  During  the  warm  season 
it  should  never  be  attempted  during  the  middle  of  the  day. 

Window  Gardening.  —  In  the  cities  it  frequently  happens  that 
room  cannot  be  found  for  an  outdoor  flower  garden,  but  in  such 
cases  the  housekeeper  may  find  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  in  having  a 
small  window  garden.  When  a  choice  of  windows'  can  be  had,  it 
will  be  best  to  take  one  facing  the  south  in  order  that  the  plants 
may  have  all  the  sunshine  possible. 

The  window  may  be  fitted  up  to  receive  the  plants  by  attaching 
to  the  wall  under  the  window  a  board  shelf  supported  either  on 
iron  brackets  or  wooden  supports.  If  the  plants  are  to  be  placed 
outside,  it  is  best  to  replace  the  shelf  with  a  window  box  and  set 


240  FLOWER   GARDENING 

the  pots  of  plants  in  it.  If  small  ornamental  plants  are  to  be 
placed  on  the  sides  of  the  window,  it  will  be  best  to  purchase 
regular  pot  brackets. 

The  window  garden  may  be  further  enlarged  by  the  addition 
of  a  hanging  basket  suspended  from  the  top  of  the  window  and  a 
plant  stand  placed  underneath  the  window  on  the  floor. 

Keep  the  plants  well  watered,  give  them  plenty  of  air  on  warm, 
sunny  days,  but  avoid  exposing  them  to  cold  drafts  on  cold  days. 
If  possible,  avoid  placing  the  plants  in  a  room  where  natural  gas 
is  used,  as  the  fumes  from  the  gas  and  its  oppressive  dry  heat  will 
prove  injurious. 

Among  the  plants  that  may  be  found  attractive  in  window 
gardens  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  ageratum,  amaryllis, 
azalea,  abutilon,  begonia,  baby  primrose,  .chrysanthemum,  carna- 
tion, calla,  Chinese  primrose,  cyclamen,  daphne,  fuchsia,  geranium, 
hydrangea,  hibiscus,  heliotrope,  olea,  petunia,  stevia,  salvia,  and 
the  valotta. 

As  basket  plants  the  following  will  be  found  useful:  othonna, 
oxalis,  saxifraga,  moneywort,  linaria,  vinca,  lobelia,  and  the 
trailing  lantana.  Among  the  trailing  plants  the  following  will 
be  found  quite  satisfactory:  English  ivy,  German  ivy,  passion 
flower,  hoy  a,  jasmine,  and  thunbergia.  Among  the  foliage  plants 
are  the  palm,  fern,  aralia,  begonia,  dracsena,  variegated  gera- 
niums, and  the  pandanus. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Submit  a  plan  for  a  flower  garden. 

2.  Secure  a  catalogue  from  some  good  seed  house  and  study  the  cost  and 
adaptability  of  various  kinds  of  flowers.  ' 

3.  Make  lists  of  spring,  fall,  and  winter  plants  for  the  flower  garden. 

4.  Determine  the  best  assortments  for  (a)  an  outlay  of  five  dollars, 
(6)  an  outlay  of  ten  dollars. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  plants  growing  at  your  own  home  and  estimate  the 
amount  of  the  investment. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  importance  of  the  flower  garden. 

2.  Describe  the  general  arrangement  of  a  lawn. 

3.  Name  the  classes  of  flower  garden  plants. 


FLOWER   GARDENING  24.1 

4.  Discuss  the  arrangement  of  shrubs. 

5.  Discuss  bulbs  and  their  uses. 

6.  Describe  (a)  corms,  (6)  tubers,  (c)  rhizomes. 

7.  Discuss  the  general  classes  of  herbs. 

8.  Name  and  describe  some  ornamental  vines. 

9.  Discuss  the  care  of  flowering  and  ornamental  plants. 
10.  What  can  you  say  of  window  gardening  ? 

REFERENCES 

Practical  Floriculture,  P.  Henderson. 

Home  Floriculture,  Eben  E.  Rexford. 

The  Horticulturists'  Rule  Book,  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Flowers  for  the  Parlor  and  Garden,  E.  S.  Rand. 

How  to  plant  a  Place,  E.  A.  Long. 

How  to  grow  Cut  Flowers,  M.  A.  Hunt. 

Window  Flower  Garden,  Julius  J.  Heinrich. 

Bulb  Culture,  Peter  Henderson. 

Annual  Flowering  Plants,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  195 


PRAC.    AGRICUL.  —  16 


XXXVI.     CIVIC   IMPROVEMENT 

SCHOOL  GARDENS 

THE  United  States  Government  maintains  a  large  model  school 
garden  at  Washington,  D.C.,  that  should  be  visited  by  every 
teacher  who  visits  Washington.  Other  good  school  gardens  may 
be  seen  at  the  State  normal  schools  in  Hyannis,  Massachusetts; 
Kirksville,  Missouri;  Edmond,  Weatherford,  and  Alva,  Oklahoma; 
and  San  Jose,  California.  Among  the  most  attractive  and  the 


School  garden,  Weatherford,  Okla. 

best  arranged  gardens  in  the  United  States  are  those  belonging  to 
the  boys  of  the  National  Cash  Register  Company  at  Dayton,  Ohio. 
They  are  models  of  neatness,  and  no  one  can  see  them  without  be- 
ing greatly  impressed  with  their  value  and  importance.  The  idea 
has  taken  firm  hold  there,  and  nearly  all  of  the  children  spend  their 
spare  time  either  in  the  school  gardens  or  in  their  small  private 
flower  gardens  at  their  own  homes. 

Each  garden  is  generally  made  ten  feet  wide  and  seventy  feet 
long  when  sufficient  ground  is  available. 

In  some  of  the  regular  school  gardens  the  plats  are  laid  off  ten 
feet  wide  and  twenty-five  feet  long,  with  the  rows  running  north 
and  south  in  order  that  the  sunlight  may  be  evenly  distributed. 

242 


CIVIC   IMPROVEMENT 


243 


For  the  lower  grades  in  the  school  it  will  be  found  best  to  have 
one  general  garden  or  bed  for  the  whole  grade,  but  in  the  higher 
grades  of  the  public  schools  and  in  normal  schools  there  should 
be  individual  gardens.  It  is  best  to  have  both  vegetables  and 
flowers  in  the  gardens  so  that  the  aesthetic  as  well  as  the  practical 
side  will  be  impressed  upon  the  pupil.  Before  beginning  the  work, 
draw  a  diagram  on  the  blackboard,  showing  the  size  of  the  grounds, 
the  size  of  each  plat,  and  the  location  of  the  walks.  Then  explain 
about  the  kinds  of  seeds  that  are  to  be  planted,  how  deep  they 
should  be  covered,  and  what  is  needed  to  make  them  grow. 

After  the  ground  has  been  plowed  or  spaded  and  put  in  thorough 
condition,  have  each  individual  garden  measured  off  and  staked  out 
with  a  good  strong  stake  at  each  corner.  Finally  number  the 
gardens  and  assign  them  in  order  to  the  pupils.  Next  lay  off  each 
plat  into  convenient  rows  and  widths  according  to  the  kinds  of 
seed  to  be  planted. 

PLAT  No.  1  PLAT  No.  2. 


String  Beans 


Tomatoes 


Beans  or  Peas 


Radish 


Onions 


Radish 


Lettuce 


Tomatoes 


Stocks  or  Sweet  Peas 


Asters 


Pinks 


Dwarf  Nasturtiums 


Pansies,  Violets 


Verbenas 


Corn 


Shell  Beans 


String  Beans 


Radish 


Onions 


Lettuce 


Tomatoes 


Radish 


Radish  or  Beans 


Beets 


Lettuce 


Asters 


Pinks 


Verbenas 


A  PLAT  FOB  A  GIRL'S  GARDEN 


A  PLAT  FOR  A  BOY'S  GAKDEN 


244 


CIVIC   IMPROVEMENT 


s 

SCALE 


PLAN 

SCHOOL  GARDEN 

SOUTHWESTERN  STATE 
NORMAL 

"WkATHEBFORD,  OxLA. 

OEP'T  OF  AGRICULTURE 
C.L.SCOTT 


EXPLANATION 

/-60°  GARDENS  OF /NDIWDUAL 

PUPILS 

0=  DEMONS  TRA  TtOMAL  PLATS 
*'FRU/T  TREES 

=  MEW  FOREST  TREES 
(.ALL  I/AR/ETIES) 

\  =  FOREST  TREES 

{ALREADY  PLANTED) 


CIVIC   IMPROVEMENT 


245 


Other  vegetables  may  be  substituted  for  those  named  above 
according  to  the  tastes  of  the  teacher  and  the  pupils.  Potatoes  and 
onions  of  various  kinds  may  be  grown  and  comparative  estimates 
made  of  the  relative  productivity  of  each  kind.  Strawberries 
will  also  be  found  interesting  and  instructive  for  school  garden 
work. 

In  normal  schools  the  work  in  the  gardens  may  be  laid  out  on 
broader  lines  and  may  partake  more  of  the  experimental  side. 
One  student  may  make  tests  to  determine  the  most  suitable  and 
most  productive  kinds  of  seed  corn,  another  student  may  make 
experiments  with  different  kinds  of  lawn  grass,  and  so  on. 

PLAT  No.  3 


Blue 

Bermuda 

Timothy 

White 

Red 

Common 

Swedish 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Clover 

Clover 

Alfalfa 

Alsike 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

DEMONSTRATION  GARDEN  FOR  LAWN  GRASS 

Experiments  with  vegetables  will  also  prove  interesting  and  in- 
structive. Below  is  given  a  suggestive  demonstration  plat  for 
onion  gardening. 

PLAT  No.  4 


Southport 

Southport 

Mammoth 

American 

Giant 

Mammoth 

Potato  or 

Red 

Yellow 

Yellow 

Silver- 

White 

Silver 

Multiplying 

Globe 

Globe 

Spanish 

skin 

Italian 

King 

Onion 

Tripoli 

DEMONSTRATION  GARDEN  FOR  ONIONS 

THE  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

In  many  places  the  schoolhouse  and  the  school  grounds  are 
the  most  unsightly  objects  in  the  neighborhood,  but  this  is  a 
condition  that  is  fast  disappearing.  The  old  log  schoolhouse 
with  its  split  log  benches  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  A  great  deal  of 
attention  is  also  now  being  given  to  the  arrangement  and  orna- 
mentation of  the  school  yard. 

When  land  is  to  be  had  at  but  little  expense,  there  is  no  reason 


246 


CIVIC   IMPROVEMENT 


why  the  school  grounds  should  not  contain  from  two  to  five 
acres  of  ground.  This  will  afford  reasonable  space  for  separate 
school  gardens  and  separate  playgrounds  for  boys  and  girls. 

Teacher  and  pupils  should  bend  every  energy  and  effort  to  make 
the  school  grounds  neat  and  attractive.  Nurserymen  will  fre- 
quently donate  trees  and  shrubs  for  this  purpose.  The  native 
trees  and  shrubs  of  the  vicinity  may  be  utilized  to  good  advantage, 
and  should  be  used.  Begin  this  work  now,  and  each  year  arrange 


-TR.E:  EIS 


E|Xt?E|Ri|M ENTAIL.   |P|L_ATS 


SMALL  BOYS' 
PLAYGROUNDS 


WALK 


SCHOOL 
GARDEN 


SMALL  GIRLS 
PLAYGROUNDS 


SCHOOL  BUILDING 


f 

ILARGE  BOYS' 

Q  PLAYGROUNDS 

© 
& 


WALK 


' 


LARGE  GIRLS' 
^PLAYGROUNDS^ 


Plan  for  school  grounds. 


for  suitable  tree-planting  exercises  on  Arbor  Day  and  invite  the 
whole  neighborhood  to  join  you  in  the  work. 

Let  the  schoolhouse  be  shaded  with  trees  and  the  lawn  set  out 
in  Bermuda  grass  or  some  other  hardy  grass.  Hide  the  unsightly 
outbuildings,  walls,  and  fences  with  the  Virginia  creeper  or 
morning-glory  vines.  Place  a  number  of  large  trees  in  the  back 
part  of  the  yard  for  a  background  and  dispose  about  them  appro- 
priate groups  of  shrubs.  Arrange  the  flowers  in  beds  and  borders 


CIVIC   IMPROVEMENT  247 

and  where  they  will  not  encroach  upon  the  children's  playgrounds. 
Let  the  playgrounds  be  supplied  when  possible  with  swings,  see- 
saws, horizontal  bars,  vaulting  poles,  ball  grounds,  and  everything 
necessary  for  the  comfort  and  enjoyment  of  the  children. 

Study  and  criticise  the  design  given  here  and  then  make  a 
model  plan  of  your  own. 

When  possible,  it  will  be  found  a  good  plan  to  have  the  children 
visit  neighboring  schools  and  note  the  arrangement  of  the  grounds. 
Encourage  them  to  make  suggestions  for  improving  upon  the 
arrangement,  whatever  it  may  be.  Some  attention  should  also  be 
given  to  the  schoolhouse  and  its  general  plan. 

Civic  IMPROVEMENT  CLUB 

It  should  be  the  business  of  this  club  to  devise  ways  and  means 
for  the  improvement  of  country  schools,  churches,  roadsides, 
homes,  and  country  life  in  general.  It  should  be  alive  to  every 
social  and  aesthetic  interest  of  the  community  and  must  be  active 
in  useful  ways  if  it  is  to  be  successful.  The  membership  of  the 
club  need  not  be  restricted  to  any  particular  class.  Generally  it 
will  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  school-teacher  to  assume  leadership 
in  this  matter,  and  to  make  the  original  call  for  the  organization 
of  the  club.  The  first  meeting  may  be  held  in  the  schoolhouse, 
and  at  this  meeting  let  the  club  organize  by  electing  a  presi- 
dent, vice  president,  secretary,  and  treasurer.  A  constitution 
should  be  drawn  up  by  a  special  committee  appointed  for  that 
purpose  and  should  be  adopted  either  at  the  first  meeting  or  at 
a  special  meeting  called  subsequently  for  that  purpose.  The 
Civic  Improvement  Club  may  be  made  a  very  potent  factor  for 
the  teacher's  success  in  every  community  where  one  is  organized 
and  properly  managed. 

BOYS'  AND  GIRLS'  CONTEST  CLUBS 

In  every  district  there  should  be  a  local  boys'  club  organized 
to  further  agricultural  knowledge,  and  contests  calculated  to 
stimulate  interest  in  agricultural  work  should  be  arranged.  In 
Nebraska,  Oklahoma,  Illinois,  and  several  other  States  much 
interest  has  been  aroused  by  the  corn  contests  and  the  prizes 


248  CIVIC   IMPROVEMENT 

offered  for  the  best  home-grown  seed  corn.  These  prizes  are 
usually  awarded  at  the  State  and  county  fairs  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools  and  the  State 
Board  of  Agriculture.  In  North  Carolina  a  series  of  contests  in 
woodwork  has  been  arranged,  which  has  been  found  profitable  as 
well  as  interesting.  In  other  States  the  attention  of  the  boys 
has  been  given  to  live  stock  and  poultry. 

The  contests  for  girls,  of  course,  have  been  along  different 
lines.  Sometimes  prizes  have  been  offered  for  work  in  plain  or 
fancy  sewing,  for  making  bread,  cakes,  jellies,  preserves,  etc., 
or  for  growing  fine  varieties  of  flowers  or  vegetables. 

Both  boys  and  girls  can  join  in  friendly  home  lawn  improvement 
contests,  and  frequently  a  prominent  merchant  or  business  man 
can  be  prevailed  upon  to  offer  prizes  for  the  neatest  and  best- 
kept  lawn.  Such  a  movement  is  always  beneficial  in  any  com- 
munity, and  it  is  one  in  which  every  teacher  should  take  a  vital 
interest.  The  local  boys'  and  girls'  clubs  may  unite  to  form  town- 
ship clubs,  with  monthly  meetings;  and  the  township  clubs  may 
unite  to  form  county  clubs,  with  annual  meetings,  under  the 
direction  and  supervision  of  the  County  Superintendent  and  the 
State  Superintendent. 

THE  NATIONAL  COMMISSION  ON  COUNTRY  LIFE 

Realizing  the  need  of  a  national  movement  for  the  betterment 
of  country  schools  and  country  social  life,  President  Roosevelt, 
in  August,  1908,  appointed  a  National  Commission  on  Country 
Life,  composed  of  L.  H.  Bailey  of  New  York,  Henry  Wallace  of 
Iowa,  Kenyon  L.  Butterfield  of  Massachusetts,  Gifford  Pinchot 
of  Washington,  D.C.,  Walter  H.  Page  of  North  Carolina,  William 
A.  Beard  of  California,  and  Charles  S.  Barrett  of  Georgia,  men  well 
fitted  for  the  task  before  them. 

The  Commission  elected  L.  H.  Bailey,  Chairman.  E.  W. 
Allen,  of  Washington,  D.C.,  was  engaged  as  Executive  Secretary. 
Norval  D.  Kemp,  of  Dayton,  Ohio,  was  chosen  Secretary  to  the 
Chairman.  The  Commission,  at  its  meeting  on  October  1,  declared 
that  its  function  was  to  make  as  thorough  a  preliminary  investiga- 
tion as  possible,  to  ascertain  the  main  deficiencies  of  country  life,  to 


CIVIC   IMPROVEMENT  249 

state  what  agencies  now  exist  to  correct  these  deficiencies,  and  to 
indicate  what  further  activity  is  necessary  to  create  a  broad, 
satisfying,  permanent  rural  life. 

The  Commission  began  its  work  by  sending  out  inquiries  to 
the  county  superintendents,  city  superintendents,  state  superin- 
tendents, teachers,  and  prominent  citizens,  in  reference  to  condi- 
tions of  country  social  life.  The  more  than  100,000  replies  received 
were  encouraging,  and  valuable  suggestions  were  gathered. 

President  Roosevelt  then  requested  the  Commission  on  Country 
Life  to  ask  the  farmers  and  other  country  people  to  meet  in  their 
schoolhouses,  on  Saturday,  December  5,  1908,  to  discuss  the 
questions  on  which  the  Commission  desired  information.  This 
met  with  such  a  generous  response  that  a  second  meeting  was 
set  in  all  the  States,  for  March  4,  1909,  to  be  known  as  Farmers' 
Day  throughout  the  Union.  The  meetings  were  held  in  nearly 
all  of  the  States  designated,  except  in  Oklahoma,  where  the  date 
was  set  first  for  March  11,  and  finally  for  May  5  and  6.  At  the 
suggestion  of  the  national  commission  the  Oklahoma  meeting 
as  set  for  May  was  made  a  general  meeting  for  all  the  States  of 
the  Southwest.  Following  up  the  suggestion,  State  Superintend- 
ent E.  D.  Cameron  and  Governor  C.  N.  Haskell,  of  Oklahoma, 
issued  a  call  for  the  meeting  and  organization  of  the  Southwest 
Interstate  Commission  on  Country  Life,  and  invited  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  Missouri,  Texas,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  California, 
Nevada,  Utah,  Colorado,  and  Kansas  to  send  delegates  and  take 
part  in  the  work.  The  call  met  with  a  generous  response,  and  an 
enthusiastic  meeting  was  held.  Preceding  the  convention,  meet- 
ings were  held  in  all  of  the  States,  at  the  schoolhouses,  on  April  30 ; 
and  in  Oklahoma,  especially,  strong  resolutions  were  passed, 
looking  to  the  improvement  of  country  life.  The  Southwest 
Interstate  Commission  on  Country  Life,  as  organized  at  Guthrie, 
accomplished  much  good  and  awakened  much  enthusiasm,  which 
is  crystallizing  in  the  National  Association  on  Country  Life  now 
forming.  Both  organizations  will  prove  powerful  factors  in  the 
future  for  the  upbuilding  and  strengthening  of  our  nation.  Su- 
perintendent Cameron  is  to  be  strongly  commended  for  taking 
the  lead  in  organizing  the  Southwest  Interstate  Commission  on 
Country  Life. 


250  CIVIC    IMPROVEMENT 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  growth  of  the  school  garden  movement  in  the  United 
States. 

2.  Discuss  the  plan  of  a  garden  for  a  grammar  school. 

3.  Submit  plans  for  (a)  a  girls'  garden,  (6)  a  boys'  garden. 

4.  Discuss  the  advisability  of  having  demonstration  gardens. 

5.  Discuss  the  arrangement  of  the  school  grounds. 

6.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  plan  of  your  school  grounds  and  suggest 
improvements.     Bring  a  plan  of  your  home  grounds,  with  the  names  of  the 
various  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers.     Ask  how  it  can  be  improved. 

7.  Discuss  the  need  of  civic  improvement  clubs. 

8.  What  do  you  think  of  boys'  and  girls'  contest  clubs  ? 

9.  Give  a  brief  account  of  President  Roosevelt's  Commission  on  Country 
Life. 

10.  Discuss  briefly  the  Southwest  Interstate  Commission  on  Country 
Life  organized  in  Oklahoma. 

1 1 .  What  other  States  have  been  active  in  this  movement  ? 

12.  What  are  the  leading  problems  facing  the  people  in  your  community  ? 
What  agencies  are  helping  to  solve  these  problems  ?    In  what  ways  can  the 
school  boys  and  girls  be  most  helpful  ? 


REFERENCES 

How  to  make  School  Gardens,  Hemenway. 

The  School  Garden,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  218. 

Tree  Planting  in  Rural  School  Grounds,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  134. 

Primer  of  Forestry,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  173. 

What  Forestry  means  to  Representative  Men,  Circular  No.  33. 


XXXVII.    LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

THE  growing  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers  for  their  combined  or 
mass  effects  in  lawns  and  parks,  etc.,  is  termed  landscape  garden- 
ing. It  is  eminently  a  fine  art  and  is  worthy  of  serious  study.  It  is 
true  that  we  cannot  all  become  professional  landscape  gardeners, 
but  we  can  give  some  attention  to  the  work  in  laying  out  our  lawns 
and  in  planning  our  homes.  We  may  not  be  able  to  afford  the 
services  of  an  experienced  landscape  gardener,  but  this  does  not 
justify  us  in  leaving  our  yards  perfectly  bare  and  in  making  no 
effort  to  improve  and  beautify  them  by  setting  out  a  few  trees  and 
shrubs.  When  trees  and  shrubs  can  be  had  at  such  little  expense, 
there  is  no  good  reason  why  we  should  not  beautify  our  lawns.  It 
is  not  enough  to  simply  set  out  trees  here  and  there,  but  there  must 
be  some  order  and  system  about  the  arrangement. 

The  Design.  —  We  must  have  a  plan  or  a  design  towards  which 
we  must  work  in  grouping  our  trees  and  shrubs.  One  of  the  car- 
dinal qualities  of  artistic  composition  in  landscape  gardening  is 
unity  and  another  is  coherence.  By  unity  we  mean  that  some  one 
idea  shall  prevail  throughout,  although  it  may  not  be  immediately 
apparent  to  every  observer.  All  the  details  must  be  subordinate 
to  this  one  idea,  and  every  item  of  composition  must  be  added  with 
this  thought  constantly  in  mind.  In  addition  to  unity  we  must 
also  have  coherence.  Thus  a  number  of  objects  of  the  same  sort 
placed  together  may  secure  unity  and  yet  at  the  same  time  not 
satisfy  the  eye  as  to  the  arrangement.  Another  quality  is  neces- 
sary, and  this  is  coherence.  Our  objects  must  be  grouped  so  that 
they  harmonize.  Even  many  dissimilar  objects  may  be  frequently 
grouped  together  in  self-satisfying  unity  if  they  have  some  obvious 
underlying  connection  by  which  they  cohere.  To  secure  thorough 
unity  and  coherence,  the  entire  work  in  landscaping  should  be  under 
the  control  of  one  person,  who  should  have  from  the  start  a  clear 
conception  of  his  problem. 

The  Plan. —  In  every  case  it  will  be  found  best  to  have  a  definite 

251 


252 


LANDSCAPE    GARDENING 


plan  in  mind  fully  worked  out  before  attempting  to  make  any 
change  in  the  grounds.  This  plan  should  be  made  on  paper  while 
the  idea  is  yet  fresh  in  the  mind.  The  unrecorded  ideal  is  likely  to 
change  in  time,  and  since  the  work  of  landscaping  may  require 
several  seasons  or  even  years  for  its  completion,  the  first  part  of  the 
plan  may  be  out  of  harmony  with  the  latter  part  before  the  work 
is  completed.  Professor  Waugh,  in  Landscape  Gardening,  says: 
"  The  plan  should  be  drawn  with  good  inks  on  the  most  durable 


Suggestions  for  a  farmyard -(.Prof.  Waugh). 

a,  Sugar  maples;  6,  shrubbery;  c,  climbers  on  the  porch;  d,  hawthorn;  e,  elms; 
/,  basswood  or  horse-chestnut  trees;  g,  sycamores. 

paper;  and  it  should  be  supplemented  by  written  specifications 
made  equally  durable.  These  plans  and  specification  cannot 
descend  too  deeply  into  the  minutiae  of  the  composition;  for  an 
unsympathetic  treatment  of  the  smallest  items  may  mar  irrepara- 
bly the  grandest  conception."  Plans  and  specifications  are  none 
too  explicit  if  they  locate  and  name  every  tree,  shrub,  bush,  vine, 
and  every  flowering  plant  that  is  to  be  used  on  the  lawn.  In  select- 
ing your  plan  adopt  something  that  will  be  in  harmony  with  the 
residence  and  the  surroundings. 


LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 


253 


Styles  of  Landscape  Gardening. —  There  are  two  great  styles  or 
types  of  landscape  gardening;  one  is  the  natural,  and  the  other 
is  the  geometrical  or  architectural. 

The  natural  style  is  sometimes  called  the  English  style  from  the 
fact  that  it  received  its  first  great  development  at  the  hands  of  the 
early  English  gardeners.  It  is  the  one  generally  favored  for  country 
homes  and  schools  in  England,  America,  Germany,  and  France.  In 
brief  this  plan  contemplates  that  the  order  of  nature  shall  be  fol- 
lowed as  largely  as  possible.  Let  the  lawns  be  as  large  and  as 
uninterrupted  as  the  surroundings  will  permit.  The  view  from  the 
front  part  should  be  open  and  unobstructed,  and  the  trees  and 


Plan  of  a  boulevard  in  a  Western  city. 


shrubs  should  be  placed  along  the  sides  of  the  lawn  near  the  fence. 
The  location  of  the  buildings  will  be  determined  in  part  by  the  lay 
of  the  grounds  and  the  taste  of  the  individual.  The  walks  and 
drives  must  be  carefully  planned,  and  in  no  case  should  they  lead 
through  the  middle  of  the  lawn  or  follow  severe  straight  lines. 
Nature  works  on  curves,  and  straight  lines  are  decidedly  unnatural. 
Usually  a  double  curve  is  more  pleasing  than  a  single  curve  when 
the  distance  traversed  will  admit  of  such  an  arrangement.  The 
trees  should  be  placed  in  groups  and  never  set  in  rows  if  we  wish 
to  produce  a  natural  effect.  The  shrubs  should  be  arranged  in  a 
natural  way  to  hide  the  trunks  of  the  trees ;  and  they  also  produce 
a  pleasing  effect  if  irregularly  grouped  along  the  walls  or  if  they 
are  massed  in  the  retreating  angles  of  the  house.  Climbers  may 


254 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 


be  occasionally  combined  judiciously  with  shrubs  to  harmonize  the 
general  effect. 

In  some  parts  of  the  United  States  it  may  be  found  necessary 
to  substitute  other  trees  for  those  given  in  the  above  design.  Each 
student  should  make  a  pencil  sketch  of  the  plan  of  the  grounds 
of  his  home,  showing  the  location  of  residence,  trees,  shrubs,  walks, 
and  outbuildings,  and  then  let  him  make  suggestions  for  any 
improvements  that  may  seem  advisable.  Students  should  also 
prepare  original  plans  and  designs  for  lawns  and  school  grounds  and 
submit  them  to  the  teacher  and  the  class  for  criticism. 


Geometrical  design. 

The  geometrical  style  is  also  known  as  the  architectural  and  the 
Italian  style  on  account  of  its  high  development  among  the  Italian 
artists.  In  this  method  the  trees  are  set  out  in  straight  rows  and 
the  grounds  are  laid  out  in  squares,  circles,  triangles,  crescents,  and 
other  geometrical  designs.  The  trees  are  set  out  in  rows  parallel 
to  the  road  and  at  uniform  distances  apart.  The  trees  should  also 
be  of  a  uniform  shape  and  size.  Clipped  hedges  will  be  found 
attractive  as  borders  and  fences.  In  parks,  terraces.,  stairways,  and 
balustrades  may  be  introduced  to  good  effect.  Fountains  and 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 


255 


flower  beds  are  very  appropriate  in  this  style  of  landscape 
gardening.  In  large  parks  lakes  and  lagoons  always  give  a  pleas- 
ing effect  to  the  landscape.  The  rustic  bridge,  rustic  garden  seat, 
summerhouse,  boathouse,  and  greenhouse  all  add  to  the  beauty 
and  attractiveness  of  any  park  and  should  not  be  overlooked. 
In  all  our  large  cities,  like  New  York,  Chicago,  Cleveland,  Rich- 
mond, Atlanta,  New  Orleans,  San  Antonio,  San  Francisco,  Seattle, 
Omaha,  St.  Louis,  and  Washington  the  student  will  find  many 
large  and  beautiful  parks  which  should  be  visited  and  studied 


In  a  tropical  city. 

closely.  Some  of  the  cemeteries  in  these  cities  will  also  prove 
interesting  studies  in  landscape  work.  The  grounds  surrounding 
the  hospitals,  asylums,  and  public  buildings  in  nearly  all  of  the 
large  cities  are  models  of  landscape  art  and  are  worthy  of  notice. 
In  cities  the  streets  should  be  wide  enough  to  provide  for  a  system 
of  parking  on  both  sides  of  the  street.  If  rows  of  trees  and  a  few 
ornamental  shrubs  and  plants  are  set  in  the  parking,  the  appear- 
ance of  the  streets  will  be  much  improved.  The  garden  boulevard 
calling  for  an  avenue  of  three  or  four  hundred  feet  in  width  is 
always  a  very  attractive  feature  in  any  city.  Much  of  the  great 
beauty  of  Paris,  Edinburgh,  and  Washington  is  due  to  the  wide 


256 


LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 


avenues,  splendid  parks,  and  beautiful  boulevards  that  are  found 
in  these  cities. 

In  the  West  the  parks  of  St.  Louis  and  Chicago  are  deserving 
of  special  mention.  No  visitor  in  Chicago  should  fail  to  visit 
Lincoln,  Jackson,  and  Washington  parks,  and  the  beautiful  grounds 
of  the  University  of  Chicago.  The  beautiful  Midway  Plaisance 
connecting  Jackson  Park  and  Washington  Park  in  Chicago  cannot 
fail  to  impress  any  one  with  its  grandeur  and  beauty. 

In  the  South  there  are  several  cities  in  which  splendid  examples 
of  the  landscape  gardener's  art  may  be  found.  A  very  elaborate 


Palmetto  grove. 

design  will  be  found  in  the  grounds  of  Belmont  College  at  Nashville, 
Tennessee.  Other  fine  examples  are  found  in  Florida,  at  St. 
Augustine,  Palm  Beach,  Daytona,  and  Tampa. 

In  many  of  the  cities  on  the  Pacific  Coast  will  be  found  beautiful 
examples  of  fine  landscape  work.  The  parks  of  Los  Angeles,  San 
Francisco,  Santa  Rosa,  San  Jose",  Fresno,  Portland,  and  Seattle 
are  of  unusual  beauty  and  merit. 

In  many  of  our  smaller  towns,  where  large  expensive  parks  can- 
not be  afforded,  the  citizens  have  shown  commendable  pride  by 
providing  a  town  square  in  which  is  frequently  located  the  county 


LANDSCAPE   GARDENING 


257 


courthouse,  city  hall,  or  some  other  public  building.  In  some 
cases  the  public  building  is  not  present,  and  in  its  place  will  be  found 
a  pavilion  or  band  stand.  Such  squares  or  plats  can  be  made  very 
attractive  if  properly  arranged. 

The  square  and  the  octagon  are  the  favorite  geometrical  plans 
for  these  small  parks.     When  possible  it  will  be  found  advisable 


Designs  for  town  squares. 

to  inclose  the  square  with  a  fence  to  keep  out  dogs  and  rabbits, 
the  worst  enemies  known  to  low  flowers,  shrubs,  and  evergreens. 
The  plat  should  be  placed  under  the  care  of  some  reliable  person 
and  should  receive  attention  from  day  to  day. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Let  each  pupil  submit  a  drawing  showing  the  plan  and  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  grounds  at  his  own  home. 

2.  Let  the  pupil  submit  a  second  drawing  suggesting  improvements  in  the 
first  plan  submitted. 

3.  Let  each  pupil  submit  a  plan  or  design  for  beautifying  the  school 
grounds. 

4.  Request  the  boys  to  organize  a  Boys'  Contest  Club  and  help  them  to 
plan  the  work  for  the  same. 

5.  Request  the  girls  to  organize  a  Girls'  Contest  Club  and  assist  them  in 
starting  the  work. 

6.  Urge  the  ladies  of  the  community  to  organize  a  Domestic  Science 
Club  and  ask  the  men  to  organize  a  Civic  Improvement  Club. 

7.  Arrange  for  excursions  to  some  educational  center  and  let  each  pupil 
make  a  special  report  on  a  certain  subject.     A  trip  to  your  State  A.  &  M. 
college,  your  State  university,  or  to  one  of  the  State  normal  schools  will 
certainly  be  interesting  as  well  as  beneficial. 

PRAC.  AGRICUL.  —  17 


258  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  landscape  gardening  ? 

2.  Discuss  its  importance. 

3.  Discuss  the  need  of  unity  and  coherence  in  the  landscape  design 

4.  Name  the  styles  of  landscape  gardening. 

5.  Discuss  the  natural  style. 

6.  Discuss  the  geometrical  style. 

7.  Name  some  cities  where  examples  of  each  style  may  be  found. 

8.  Discuss  the  town  square  and  its  usual  designs. 

REFERENCES 

Landscape  Gardening,  F.  A.  Waugh. 
Beautifying  Country  Homes,  3.  Weidemann. 
Landscape  Gardening,  E.  A.  Long. 
Practical  Landscape  Gardening,  F.  R.  Elliott. 
Landscape  Gardening,  Samuel  Parsons. 


XXXVIII.     FORESTRY 

IN  a  general  way  every  one  has  some  idea  of  what  is  meant  by 
forestry.  It  does  not  deal  with  individual  trees,  but  with  an  assem- 
blage of  trees;  and  for  this  reason  Professor  Coulter  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  suggests  that  forestry  be  defined  as  the  manage- 
ment of  woodland,  not  only  for  timber  that  will  be  afforded,  but 
also  because  of  its  important  relations  to  climate,  water  supply, 
soil  preservation,  and  the  beauty  of  our  natural  surroundings. 

In  the  settling  of  new  sections  of  our  country  forests  were 
looked  upon  as  obstacles  to  farming,  and  the  first  care  of  the  settler 
was  to  cut  down  the  trees  and  clear  the.farm.  In  this  way  much 
valuable  timber  was  wasted.  We  may  not  appreciate  the  value  of 
trees  until  we  visit  treeless  countries  as  China,  Korea,  and  parts 
of  India  and  Egypt,  where  the  people  have  but  very  little  fuel  for 
making  fires  and  often  suffer  severely  from  cold  weather.  Tn  these 
countries  the  laborer  is  fortunate  if  he  secures  a  basket  of  the  roots 
of  shrubs  for  his  evening  fire.  Even  the  refuse  from  the  stable  is 
collected,  dried,  and  used  as  fuel. 

Unless  proper  measures  are  taken  to  protect  the  forests  in  the 
United  States,  we  shall  soon  reach  a  point  when  the  supply  of  tim- 
ber will  be  wholly  inadequate  to  furnish  the  lumber  needed  for 
building  our  houses  and  for  supplying  our  factories.  The  paper 
required  for  printing  our  daily  and  weekly  newspapers  is  made 
from  wood  pulp,  and  thousands  upon  thousands  of  trees  are 
required  for  this  purpose  every  year.  Because  of  the  scarcity  of 
wood  pulp  the  price  of  paper  has  advanced,  and  many  popular 
magazines  have  found  it  necessary  to  advance  their  prices.  We  are 
just  beginning  to  look  for  substitutes  for  wood  pulp.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  trees  are  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  matches,  railroad 
ties,  piles,  fence  posts,  furniture,  and  building  materials.  In  many 
parts  of  the  United  States  a  great  deal  of  timber  is  used  as  fuel. 
The  demands  made  upon  our  forests  from  all  these  sources  in  a  year 
is  said  to  be  three  times  as  great  as  all  the  timber  supplied  by  one 

259 


260 


FORESTRY 


year's  growth  of  all  the  trees  in  the  United  States.  At  this  rate  it  is 
only  a  question  of  a  short  time  when  all  the  forests  in  our  country 
will  be  destroyed,  unless  measures  are  taken  to  protect  and  increase 
our  supply  of  trees  and  public  forests. 

National  Forests.  —  Realizing  the  danger  threatened  to  our 
country  from  destruction  of  forests,  Congress,  in  1891,  authorized 
the  President  to  establish  forest  reserves,  or  national  forests,  and 
President  Harrison  created  the  Yellowstone  Forest  Reserve  that 
same  year.  We  have  about  one  hundred  and  fifty-four  national 


Distribution  of  forests. 

forests,  containing  approximately  one  hundred  and  fifty  million 
acres  of  land.  Of  this  amount  there  are  about  one  hundred  and 
forty-five  million  acres  in  the  United  States  proper  and  about 
five  million  acres  more  in  Alaska  and  Porto  Rico.  At  the  start 
there  was  a  great  deal  of  opposition  to  the  establishment  of  the 
national  forests,  because  it  was  claimed  that  the  establishment  of 
a  forest  at  once  locked  up  all  the  resources  of  the  region,  checked 
industry,  prohibited  settlements,  and  made  future  growth  im- 
possible; but  precautions  are  being  taken  to  avoid  all  of  these  ob- 
jections. All  agricultural  lands  are  excluded  from  the  boundaries 
and  are  left  open  to  settlement.  Prospecting  and  mining  are 
absolutely  unchecked.  A  certain  portion  of  the  timber  may  be 
cut  and  sold  each  year  under  the  direction  of  the  local  officers,  the 


FORESTRY 


261 


supervisors  and  rangers.  There  is  seldom  any  need  to  refer  matters 
to  the  Forester  or  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.C. 
The  supervisor  has  direct  charge 
of  the  national  forest  and  prac- 
tically all  the  business  connected 
with  it.  Supervisors  receive  a 
salary  varying  from  $1500  to 
$3000  per  year  and  traveling 
expenses.  The  office  of  the 
supervisor  is  usually  at  some 
town  or  central  point  conven- 
ient to  the  users  of  the  national  forest.  The  rangers  are  the  field 
men,  and  they  live  in  the  forests  and  often  at  places  remote  from 
all  settlements.  They  are  required  to  be  familiar  with  lumbering 
and  sawmill  business,  the  handling  of  live  stock,  mining,  and  land 
laws.  They  receive  from  $900  to  $1500  per  year  and  the  use  of 
cabins  built  by  the  government.  They  are  required  to  furnish  feed 


United  States.  Rest  of  world. 

Lumbering  of  the  world. 


Forest  in  New  England. 

for  their  own  horses  and  to  meet  their  own  traveling  expenses. 
The  duties  of  the  guards  are  similar  to  those  of  the  rangers,  who 
have  supervision  over  them.  The  guards  are  usually  temporary 
men,  who  are  kept  on  duty  during  the  summer  only,  to  assist  in 
fire  patrol  and  construction  work.  Their  salaries  range  from  $720 
to  $900  a  year.  The  appointment  to  the  position  of  ranger 
or  supervisor  is  made  only  through  the  Civil  Service  examina- 


262 


FORESTRY 


tions,  and  is  restricted  to  applicants  between  the  ages  of  twenty- 
one  and  forty  who  live  in  the  State  where  the  forest  is  located. 

Forest  Enemies. —  Aside  from  the  business  management  of  the 
forests  it  is  the  duty  of  the  supervisors,  rangers,  and  guards  to 
protect  the  forests  from  various  enemies.  Many  trees  fall  victims 
to  fungus  pests  and  prompt  action  is  always  necessary  to 
eradicate  them.  Windstorms  often  destroy  many  large  areas 

of  forests,  but  the  dam- 
age can  be  offset  if  new 
trees  are  set  out  im- 
mediately. Ants  and 
borers  work  around  the 
bases  or  trunks  of  the 
trees,  and  the  larvae 
of  sawflies  and  moths 
prey  upon  the  foliage 
of  the  trees  and  fre- 
quently cause  them 
to  die.  Sheep,  goats, 
hogs,  cattle,  and  burros 
often  do  a  great  deal  of 
injury  when  the  range 
is  pastured  too  closely, 
and  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  rangers  and  super- 
visors to  protect  the 
Forest  in  the  tropics.  national  forest  against 

damage  from  this  source.  The  supervisor  allots  the  range  among 
the  various  applicants,  giving  a  preference  to  the  small  near-by 
owner  and  the  men  who  have  always  used  the  range. 

Another  great  enemy  of  the  forests  is  fire.  Sometimes  the  fire 
may  be  started  from  a  camp  fire  which  was  not  thoroughly  extin- 
guished, sometimes  by  a  spark  from  the  locomotive  of  a  passing 
train,  sometimes  by  a  careless  smoker  who  may  throw  a  lighted 
cigar  among  the  dry  leaves,  and  sometimes  by  hunters  and  thought- 
less young  persons,  who  start  a  fire  and  leave  it  burning  without 
thinking  of  the  consequences.  All  such  offenders  are  subject  to 
arrest,  and  severe  penalties  are  inflicted. 


FORESTRY  263 

Uses  of  Forests.  —  National  forests  are  first  of  all  for  the  benefit 
of  the  home  builder,  and  their  resources  are  protected  and  used  for 
his  special  welfare.  They  protect  the  trees  and  grow  wood  for 
use.  Hundreds  of  millions  of  feet  of  timber  are  sold  from  the 
national  forests  every  year,  but  the  cuttings  are  made  so  carefully 
that  the  stand  of  trees  is  left  in  condition  for  successive  crops. 
One  good  use  of  the  national  forests  is  to  save  every  drop  of  water 
and  make  it  available  for  use.  They  conserve  the  moisture  result- 
ing from  snow  and  rain  and  keep  it  from  being  wasted.  On  a 
barren,  hard  surface  the  water  from  many  storms  rushes  down  the 


Lumbering,  Washington. 

slopes,  washing  away  the  soil,  causing  sudden  floods  and  untold 
damage;  while  on  a  porous,  spongy  surface  it  runs  down  slowly 
and  brings  about  an  even  flow  of  water  throughout  most  of 
the  year. 

In  irrigation  farming,  it  is  very  necessary  to  have  an  even 
flow  of  water  throughout  the  year,  especially  during  the  growing 
season.  The  forest  cover,  with  its  network  of  roots,  fallen  leaves, 
and  branches,  prevents  the  soil  being  washed  away  by  heavy 
rains.  The  foliage  of  the  forest  in  a  measure  breaks  the  force 
of  the  rainfall  in  heavy  downpours,  and  thus  lightens  the  effects  of 
erosion  and  allows  the  water  to  seep  into  the  soil.  Another  benefit 
from  the  national  forests  is  that  they  provide  range  for  live  stock 


264  FORESTRY 

in  many  places.  Forests  are  also  of  great  value  in  any  region, 
as  they  break  the  force  of  the  prevailing  winds. 

Aside  from  commercial  uses,  national  forests  are  of  great  value 
as  places  of  recreation,  for  campers,  hunters,  fishermen,  and 
health  or  pleasure  seekers.  They  are,  in  a  certain  sense,  the 
great  open-air  playgrounds  of  the  nation,  where  all  may  come  in 
contact  with  nature  and  enjoy  its  beauties. 

National  forests  also  serve  as  vast  game  preserves,  in  which 
many  species  of  game  are  protected  that  in  a  short  time  would 
become  extinct  because  of  the  slaughter  inflicted  upon  them 
by  hunters.  The  buffalo,  or  American  bison,  would  long  ago  have 
become  extinct  but  for  the  protection  afforded  him  in  some  of  our 
national  parks. 

Reforestation  and  Tree  Planting.  —  In  the  open  prairies  and 
regions  where  the  forests  have  disappeared  steps  should  be  taken 
to  set  out  trees  and  to  start  forests.  This  has  been  done  on  a 
large  scale  in  Europe,  and  there  is  no  good. reason  why  the  same 
thing  cannot  be  done  in  this  country.  Palestine  and  Mesopo- 
tamia, once  very  fertile  and  productive  countries,  are  now  almost 
barren  because  of  the  destruction  of  the  forests.  Trees  modify 
the  climate  to  a  certain  extent,  and  their  removal  in  the  countries 
mentioned  is  in  part  responsible  for  the  barren  condition  that  now 
exists  there.  The  same  is  true  in  other  countries. 

Trees  should  be  set  out  along  the  public  highways,  along  the 
boundaries  of  farms,  along  small  water  courses,  and  wherever 
their  presence  does  not  prove  detrimental  in  any  way.  Every 
pasture  should  contain  at  least  a  few  trees  to  make  shade  for 
stock  during  the  warm  season  of  the  year.  It  would  also  be  well 
to  set  in  trees  all  waste  and  broken  areas  of  the  farm  that  cannot 
be  cultivated  to  advantage.  Every  farmer  should  grow  enough 
trees  to  keep  him  supplied  with  fence  posts,  and  other  small  timbers 
as  they  are  needed.  The  kind  of  tree  to  be  planted  will  depend  on 
the  locality  and  climate.  Suggestions  can  always  be  had  from  the 
Director  of  the  State  Experiment  Station  in  each  State,  or  from  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  at  Washington,  D.C. 
In  some  of  the  Western  States  the  eucalyptus  and  the  catalpa  have 
been  grown  successfully  and  have  been  especially  valuable  for 
fence  posts. 


FORESTRY  265 

A  great  deal  of  interest  is  now  being  awakened  in  tree  plant- 
ing through  the  observance  of  Arbor  Day,  which  is  recognized  and 
observed  in  nearly  every  State.  It  was  originated,  in  1872,  by 
Hon.  J.  Sterling  Morton,  who  subsequently  became  Secretary  of 
Agriculture.  The  mere  planting  of  trees  is  not  sufficient.  They 
must  receive  constant  care.  The  weeds  must  be  kept  down  and 
the  ground  around  them  cultivated.  The  trees  while  young  must 
be  protected  against  animals  that  browse  on  their  foliage  or  gnaw 
the  bark  on  the  trunks.  Every  farmer  should  be  far-sighted 
enough  to  plant  and  cultivate  a  certain  number  of  trees  every  year, 
and  road  overseers  should  be  required  to  have  trees  set  out  along 
all  the  public  highways.  Railroads  can  also  assist  in  this  work 
by  setting  out  trees  along  their  right  of  way, 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  destruction  of  forests. 

2.  When  was  the  first  national  forest  established? 

3.  How  are  the  forest  reserves  managed? 

4.  Discuss  forest  enemies. 

5.  What  are  the  uses  of  national  forests  ? 

6.  What  provisions  have  been  made  for  game  preserves  ? 

7.  Discuss  the  necessity  of  reforestation  where  forests  have  been  de- 
stroyed. 

8.  Should  trees  be  planted  along  the  highways  ? 

9.  How  many  trees  on  the  public  highways  near  the  school  have  been 
injured  by  animals  ?  How  many  trees  are  protected  against  such  injury? 

10.  Visit  the  nearest  wood  lot  and  see  whether  there  has  been  any  damage 
by  fire;  what  the  danger  is  from  fire;  whether  cattle  have  destroyed  the 
undergrowth;  where  trees  should  be  planted;  whether  the  wood  lot  gets 
any  intelligent  care.  Write  an  essay  on  your  wood  lot. 

REFERENCES 

Report  of  the  Forester,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 

D.C. 

A  Primer  of  Forestry,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  173. 
Clearing  New  Land,  Farmers'  Bulletin.No.  150. 
Tree  Planting  in  Rural  School  Grounds,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  134. 


XXXIX.     ROADS   AND   ROAD    BUILDING 

IT  has  been  said  that  the  roads  of  a  nation  are  an  index  to  its 
civilization  and  progress.  The  early  Romans  gave  a  great  deal 
of  attention  to  road  building,  and  much  of  their  success  must  be 
attributed  to  this  fact.  Among  their  achievements  along  this 
line  may  be  mentioned  the  Great  Appian  Way,  leading  from  Rome 
to  Capua.  This  was  built  of  square  stones,  laid  on  a  foundation 
of  sand  and  mortar,  and  was  one  of  the  great  military  roads  of 
that  time.  It  was  so  well  constructed  that,  although  it  was  built 
312  B.C.,  remains  of  it  still  may  be  seen.  When  the  Romans 
invaded  Britain  they  built  roads  from  place  to  place  as  they 
advanced,  and  ruins  of  many  of  these  early  highways  still  remain. 

Good  roads  do  much  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  country  life, 
because  they  make  it  possible  for  the  farmer  to  visit  the  churches, 
the  schools,  the  post  office,  and  his  neighbors  without  difficulty. 
Bad  roads  increase  the  labor  and  expense  of  getting  the  crops 
to  market.  In  fact,  perishable  products  may  go  entirely  to  waste 
before  they  can  be  taken  to  market  during  wet  seasons  when  the 
roads  which  have  had  no  attention  become  muddy  and  impas- 
sable. In  the  winter  time  the  mud  in  the  roads  freezes  up  and 
makes  the  roads  so  rough  that  traveling  on  them  is  dangerous 
and  difficult.  Good  roads  enable  us  to  haul  larger  loads  and  with 
much  less  wear  and  tear  on  our  horses  and  conveyances. 

In  the  construction  and  improvement  of  roads  there  are  four 
factors  to  be  considered:  (1)  location,  (2)  drainage,  (3)  foundation, 
(4)  surface. 

Location.  —  A  most  important  question  in  road  building  is 
that  of  location,  and  yet  in  many  cases  it  is  given  but  little  con- 
sideration, so  far  as  the  value  of  the  road  is  concerned.  The  road 
is  usually  located  where  the  least  expenditure  of  money  and  labor 
will  be  required.  This  means  that  the  road  will  follow  the  bound- 
aries of  the  farm,  regardless  of  the  hills  and  all  other  obstacles. 
Such  a  policy,  in  a  rough  and  broken  country,  is  far  from  being 

266 


ROADS   AND   ROAD   BUILDING 


267 


satisfactory  and  is  certainly  discouraging  to  teamsters  who  have 
heavy  loads  to  haul  to  market.  As  a  rule  on  dirt  roads  the  grade 
should  not  exceed  7  per  cent,  or  a  rise  of  seven  feet  in  every 
hundred  feet  of  the  distance  traversed.  New  Jersey  and  Con- 
necticut excel  all  other  States  in  the  matter  of  the  improvement 
of  their  roads,  and  their  extensive  experience  in  this  work  is  of 
inestimable  value  to  States  just  beginning  any  public  improvement 
of  this  kind.  In  New  Jersey  the  grade  ranges  from  5  to  7  per 
cent,  while  in  Connecticut  the  general  standard  grade,  for  State 
roads,  is  5  per  cent.  It  is  estimated  that  an  average  horse  can  pull 
1000  pounds  on  a  level,  or  a  zero  grade,  900  pounds  on  a  1  per 
cent  grade,  810  pounds  on  a 
2  per  cent  grade,  540  pounds 
on  a  4  per  cent  grade,  and  so 
forth. 

In  level  country,  roads  may 
be  made  to  follow  the  bound- 
aries of  the  farm  without 
inconvenience  provided  the 
farms  are  not  too  large.  A 
good  arrangement  is  where 
there  is  a  road  around  every 
section  and  quarter  section. 
By  this  arrangement  no  one 
would  have  to  travel  more 
than  half  a  mile  to  reach  the 
junction  of  the  road  he  is  traveling  with  the  nearest  cross 
road. 

Drainage.  —  Good  drainage  in  many  places  is  of  more  impor- 
tance than  location.  A  great  deal  of  money  is  wasted  every 
year  in  trying  to  construct  roads  without  proper  drainage.  Any 
method  of  improving  a  road  by  placing  upon  its  surface  materials 
of  different  kinds,  without  providing  for  proper  drainage,  must  of 
necessity  fail.  In  providing  for  surface  drainage,  open  ditches  on 
both  sides  of  the  road  should  be  made,  but  in  many  cases  a  single 
ditch,  on  the  lower  side  of  the  road,  will  meet  all  requirements. 
Different  soils  and  conditions  call  for  different  kinds  of  ditches, 
but  in  no  case  should  they  be  of  extreme  depth  and  width. 


40 

40 

40 

40 



40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

*-J4h|lile-» 

Diagram  showing  roads  around  each  quarter 
section. 


268  ROADS   AND    ROAD   BUILDING 

Furthermore,  these  deep  ditches  are  frequently  washed  out  to 
still  greater  depths  by  the  rains,  and  become  a  source  of  great 
danger,  especially  when  teams  become  frightened  and  draw  wagons 
or  vehicles  too  near  the  edge  of  the  road. 

The  best  results  will  generally  be  secured  by  having  a  small 
ditch,  and  carrying  the  water  at  frequent  intervals  to  the  natural 
water  courses  on  either  side  by  cross  drains.  For  the  cross  drains 
and  culverts,  vitrified  tile,  iron  pipe,  or  concrete  drains  may  be 
used.  On  common  country  roads,  the  roadbed  is  often  heaped  up 
high  in  the  center  with  scrapers  and  then  left  to  be  beaten  down  by 
travel,  but  this  is  a  serious  mistake,  which  should  be  avoided 
whenever  possible.  The  roadbed  can  be  shaped  much  better 
with  a  road  grader,  which  gives  a  very  gradual  slope  from  the  center 
to  either  side.  Generally  a  rise  of  eight  to  ten  inches  in  the  center 
will  be  sufficient  to  afford  ample  drainage.  Road  graders  are 
costly,  and  in  some  cases  the  road  once  graded  can  be  kept  in 
excellent  shape  by  using  a  plank  or  split-log  drag.  Usually 
a  road  district  corresponds  with  the  school  district,  and  the 
road  overseer  has  supervision  over  all  the  roads  of  the  district. 
The  building  of  costly  bridges  over  large  streams  is  left  to  the 
county  commissioners,  who  draw  on  the  county  funds  for  this 
purpose. 

Foundation.  —  In  road  building,  or  any  other  piece  of  construc- 
tion in  the  line  of  engineering,  the  first  requisite  is  a  proper  founda- 
tion. In  paved  streets  and  roads,  many  people  suppose  that  the 
load  is  borne  by  the  surface  of  the  paving,  but  such  is  not  the  case. 
The  load  is  really  supported  by  the  foundation,  on  which  the  sur- 
face construction  rests.  The  paving  merely  serves  as  a  roof  to 
keep  the  foundation  dry  and  to  protect  it  against  indentation 
and  wear  when  heavy  wagons  and  vehicles  of  various  kinds  are 
driven  over  the  road.  If  excavations  are  made  for  drainage 
pipes  or  sewers,  the  ground  must  be  well  firmed  and  packed  before 
any  paving  is  placed  on  the  road  or  street.  If  this  is  not  done, 
the  soil  will  settle  after  heavy  rains,  and  the  paving,  being  left 
without  any  support,  will  cave  in.  In  this  work  the  use  of  a  heavy 
steam  roller  is  necessary  to  give  proper  firmness  to  the  ground 
over  which  the  roadbed  passes.  In  the  country  the  clay  soil 
usually  affords  a  proper  foundation  when  properly  graded  and 


ROADS   AND   ROAD   BUILDING  269 

packed ;  but  in  cities,  for  street  work,  various  materials  are  used  in 
building  up  a  foundation. 

Coal  cinders  and  screenings  from  coke  are  usually  very  satis- 
factory for  this  purpose.  Waste  products  from  factories  are 
available  in  many  localities  and  may  be  used  to  good  advantage. 
The  waste  material  from  fire-clay  brick,  sewer  pipe,  broken  and 
unused  pieces  of  shells  from  button  factories  are  frequently 
used  and  are  found  very  satisfactory  for  foundation  work.  In 
regions  where  there  are  large  smelters  slag  is  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

In  cities,  after  the  ground  has  been  leveled  and  rolled,  a 
foundation  of  gravel  and  concrete  is  often  provided  before 
the  paving  is  put  down,  but  on  country  roads  this  is  too 
expensive. 

The  surface  should  have  sufficient  slope  to  cause  all  rain  water 
to  drain  off  easily  and  quickly.  The  lateral  slope  from  the  center 
to  either  side  should  be  about  one  in  twelve.  Some  road  builders 
have  a  continuous  curve  for  the  surface;  others  have  a  curve  at 
the  center,  while  the  sides  have  an  even  slope.  When  we  speak  of 
the  lateral  slope  as  being  one  in  twelve,  we  mean  that  there  is  a 
slope  downward  of  one  inch  to  the  foot.  On  this  scale  a  street 
twenty-four  feet  wide  would  be  one  foot  higher  at  the  center  of 
the  crown  of  the  road  than  at  either  side.  In  many  instances 
the  center  of  the  crown  is  only  from  five  to  eight  inches  higher  than 
each  side  of  the  street. 

The  width  of  the  surface  should  be  great  enough  to  accom- 
modate all  traffic,  so  that  vehicles  of  all  kinds  may  have  suffi- 
cient room  to  pass  each  other  without  difficulty.  Wherever  pos- 
sible, bridges  should  be  practically  of  the  same  width  as  tho 
road. 

In  this  country  the  universal  custom  is  for  each  driver  to  turn 
to  his  right  in  passing  any  vehicle  which  he  may  meet  in  his  road, 
but  this  custom  varies  in  different  countries.  In  many  parts  of 
Canada  drivers  of  vehicles  turn  to  the  left  instead  of  the  right. 
Custom  demands  that  heavily  loaded  wagons  be  given  the  right 
of  way,  and  that  empty  wagons  or  light-going  vehicles  turn  either 
to  the  right  or  left,  as  the  situation  may  demand. 

Wherever  deep  fills  are  made  in  the  roadbed,  the  surface  should 


270  ROADS   AND   ROAD   BUILDING 

be  protected  from  washing,  by  flanking  the  sides  with  a  wall  of 
heavy  stone  and  gravel.  If  this  is  not  done,  every  heavy  rain 
will  wash  away  the  soil  and  undermine  the  surface  of  the  roadbed. 
When  stone  cannot  be  had,  piles  should  be  driven  into  the  ground, 
along  the  sides  of  the  embankment,  and  heavy  planks  two 
inches  thick  should  then  be  placed  between  the  piles  and  the 
embankment  so  that  the  soil  cannot  be  washed  away  by  the  rains. 

Kinds  of  Roads.  — There  are  many  kinds  of  roads  in  use  in 
various  parts  of  the  country,  but  for  general  purposes  they 
maybe  classed  as  follows:  (1)  common  dirt  roads;  (2)  sand-clay 
roads;  (3)  shell-rock  roads,  (4)  plank  roads;  (5)  macadam  roads; 
(6)  telford  roads;  (7)  brick-paved  roads;  (8)  cobblestone  roads; 
(9)  block-paved  roads;  (10)  asphalt  roads;  (11)  oiled  roads. 

Common  Dirt  Roads.  —  In  these  roads  the  natural  surface  of 
the  ground  forms  the  roadbed.  No  special  improvement  is  given 


Section  of  a  dirt  road. 

it  except  to  provide  proper  drainage  and  grading.  Whenever 
possible  the  roadbed  should  be  worked  with  a  road  grader  and 
firmed  with  a  heavy  roller. 

After  each  rain  or  thaw  the  roadbed  should  be  carefully  gone 
over  with  a  split-log  drag,  which  will  draw  the  dirt  towards  the 
center  of  the  road  and  will  fill  up  all  ruts  and  depressions. 

Sand-clay  Roads.  —  In  many  parts  of  Florida  and  the  South 
the  roadbeds  are  made  bad  on  account  of  the  deep  sand  beds. 
This  is  remedied  by  hauling  clay  and  mixing  it  with  the  upper  six 
or  seven  inches  of  sand.  The  clay  and  sand  are  mixed  while  wet 
and  are  thoroughly  incorporated  with  each  other  by  the  use  of 
harrows  and  diskers.  Then  the  surface  is  carefully  rounded  and 
rolled,  and  the  work  is  finished. 

Shell-rock  Roads.  —  In  some  parts  of  Florida,  and  especially 
in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Augustine,  there  are  large  deposits  of  coquina, 
or  shell  rock,  which  when  crushed  can  be  used  to  good  advantage 
for  surfacing  roadbeds.  There  is  a  very  good  shell-rock  road 
extending  from  Jacksonville,  Florida,  to  St.  Augustine,  Florida. 


ROADS   AND   ROAD   BUILDING 


271 


Plank  Roads.  —  Some  years  ago  a  number  of  plank  roads  were 
ouilt  in  Missouri  and  other  States,  but  they  were  found  objection- 
able, and  their  construction  has  been  discontinued.  It  was 
found  that  the  planks  were  slippery  and  dangerous  during 
wet  weather  and  in  the  winter  time  when  there  was  snow  or 
ice  on  the  surface  of  the  road.  The  cost  of  constructing  such 
roads  was  so  great  that  but  few  communities  undertook  the 
experiment. 

Macadam  Roads.  —  These  roads  are  the  outgrowth  of  the  ideas 
of  John  L.  Macadam,  a  Scotchman,  who  lived  from  1756  to  1836 
and  gave  considerable  attention  to  the  matter  of  road  building. 
After  the  ground  has  been  properly  graded  and  prepared,  there  is 
placed,  first  a  layer  of  small  stone,  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter, 


EDIUM     R.OCK 


Section  of  a  macadam  road. 


which  is  firmly  packed  or  rolled;  then  another  layer  of  stone, 
about  half  the  size  of  the  stones  of  the  first  layer,  is  added,  rolled, 
and  packed.  This  layer  is  then  crowned  with  a  layer  of  finely 
crushed  rock  and  sand,  and  is  likewise  rolled  and  packed.  A 
great  many  of  these  roads  are  found  in  Missouri,  Tennessee,  and 
Kentucky,  and  in  some  of  the  Eastern  States.  In  Missouri  they 
are  frequently  called  gravel  roads,  while  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky 
they  are  designated  as  pikes  or  turnpikes.  Generally  the  county 
furnishes  half  of  the  funds  needed  to  build  the  road,  and  the  prop- 
erty owners  along  its  route  subscribe  the  remainder.  In  order 
to  keep  up  the  road,  a  toll  of  two  or  three  cents  a  mile  is  generally 
charged,  which  is  collected  by  the  tollgate  keeper  at  either  end  of 
the  road. 


272  ROADS   AND   ROAD   BUILDING 

Telford  Roads.  —  The  telford  road,  like  the  macadam  road,  is 
a  Scotch  product.  It  differs  from  the  macadam  road  in  having 
its  first  layer  of  large  flat  stones  laid  in  regular  order. 


Section  of  a  telford  road. 

Brick-paved  Roads.  —  In  some  localities,  where  brick  of  good 
quality  are  manufactured  under  favorable  conditions  as  to  cost 
and  accessibility,  they  may  be  used  to  good  purpose  in  construct- 
ing roads  and  streets.  The  usual  method  is  to  grade  and  to  pre- 
pare the  surface  in  the  same  way  as  for  a  dirt  road.  The  soil 
must  be  thoroughly  compacted  with  the  steam  roller  and  leveler, 
so  that  there  will  be  no  settling  of  the  roadbed  afterwards.  A 
little  sand  is  scattered  over  the  surface  first,  and  then  a  course  of 
brick  is  laid  down  flatwise,  and  this  is  followed  with  more  sand 
and  another  course  of  brick  laid  down  lengthwise.  In  some 
cases,  sand  is  again  used  to  fill  the  crevices  among  the  brick,  in 
the  top  layer;  and  in  other  cases,  melted  pitch  is  used.  The  latter 
material  is  the  most  satisfactory  for  fillings,  as  it  is  impervious  to 
water  and  binds  and  holds  the  brick  together.  In  cities  the 
gutters  or  side  ditches  are  built  up  of  concrete;  but  in  building 
country  roads,  cobblestones  are  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose. 
After  the  top  course  of  brick  is  laid,  the  roadbed  should  be  care- 
fully rolled  with  the  steam  roller,  until  the  surface  is  even  and  free 
from  inequalities. 

Cobblestone  Roads.  —  Heavy  cobblestones  of  considerable  size 
are  often  used  for  paving  on  streets  and  highways  where  there  is 
much  heavy  hauling.  In  this  arrangement  the  construction  is 
similar  to  that  for  brick  paving,  except  that  square  blocks  of  stone, 
about  the  size  of  three  or  four  bricks,  are  used  for  the  paving 
material. 


ROADS  AND   ROAD   BUILDING  273 

Block-paved  Roads.  —  In  block-paved  roads  the  construction 
is  similar  to  that  for  brick  paving,  except  that  square  blocks  of 
wood  are  used  instead  of  brick.  Bois  d'Arc  and  walnut  make 
the  most  durable  material. 

Asphalt  Roads.  —  For  boulevards  and  for  residence  streets 
asphalt  paving  is  very  popular.  The  surface  is  carefully  graded, 
rolled,  and  compacted;  and  then  a  layer  of  concrete  several  inches 


A  street  in  Paris. 


in  thickness  is  placed  on  the  roadbed;  and  when  this  has  become 
thoroughly  dry  and  hard,  a  heavy  layer  of  pitch-covered  pebbles 
is  spread  and  then  a  smooth  coating  of  asphalt  mixed  with  fine 
sand  is  put  on.  On  both  sides  of  the  roadbed  the  asphalt  surface 
is  flanked  with  gutters  and  curbstones  built  up  of  concrete. 

Oiled  Roads.  —  In  Southern  California  roads  are  often  improved 
by  treating  them  with  oil.  After  the  roadbed  has  been  graded, 
it  is  plowed  up  and  harrowed.  It  is  then  sprinkled  with  black 
crude  oil.  The  soil  is  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  oil  by 
harrowing  and  by  disking.  After  the  oil  has  soaked  into  the 
ground  thoroughly,  the  roadbed  is  rolled  and  leveled,  and  is  then 

PRAC.    AGRICUL. 18 


274  ROADS  AND  ROAD   BUILDING 

ready  for  use,  The  streets  of  Santa  Barbara,  California,  which 
have  been  treated  in  this  way  with  oil,  have  proved  very  satis- 
factory. 

A  few  of  the  railroad  companies  have  used  crude  oil  at  times 
for  sprinkling  their  roadbeds  through  dry,  sandy  sections  of  the 
deserts  to  lay  the  dust.  In  southern  Oklahoma  it  is  frequently 
used  on  race  tracks  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  Management  and  Construction  of  Country  Roads.  —  In 
recent  years  Georgia  has  made  great  strides  in  the  management 
and  construction  of  country  roads.  Some  of  their  most  notice- 
able features  are  their  width,  and  the  gutters  and  curbings  which 
line  them.  In  Fulton  County  every  one  of  the  county  roads 
now  being  constructed  is  of  macadam,  and  has  its  brick  gutter 
and  stone  curbing,  just  as  the  city  street  pavement  has.  On  one 
side  of  the  road  there  is  also  a  dirt  sidewalk  as-'one  of  the  most 
important  features  of  the  road.  They  provide  perfect  drainage, 
sewers  being  placed  at  intervals  to  carry  off  the  storm  water  to 
places  where  it  will  do  no  harm.  The  open  ditch  at  the  side  of 
the  road  is  eliminated,  and  the  danger  of  the  road's  caving  or  being 
undermined  at  the  sides  is  removed. 

Fulton  County  has  not  accomplished  all  these  results  in  a  day 
nor  in  a  year,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  permanent  work  has  been 
done  during  the  past  ten  years. 

One  and  One-half  Million  Dollars  spent  on  Roads.  —  The  books 
of  the  county  commissioners  show  that  $1,507,000  has  been  spent 
by  the  county  on  the  country  roads  in  the  last  ten  years  alone, 
and  several  hundred  thousands  of  dollars  were  spent  in  the  pre- 
ceding decade. 

The  county  does  not  levy  a  special  road  tax  for  general  purposes, 
and  all  money  spent  on  the  roads  is  appropriated  by  the  com- 
missioners out  of  the  general  county  fund.  In  1899  the  com- 
missioners appropriated  $97,000  for  road  work.  The  following 
year  $101,000  was  set  aside  for  that  purpose,  and  the  appropriation 
has  been  increased  by  from  $10,000  to  $20,000  every  year  with 
two  or  three  exceptions.  In  1907  the  appropriation  was  $203,000, 
and  in  1908  it  was  $201,000. 

The  total  county  tax  levy  for  all  purposes  is  six  mills,  or  sixty 
eents  on  every  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  property.  This  brings 


ROADS  AND   ROAD  BUILDING  275 

in  an  annual  revenue  of  about  one-half  million  dollars,  and  during 
the  past  two  years  almost  half  of  the  total  revenue  has  been  spent 
on  the  roads. 

There  is  a  special  road  tax  of  $2.50,  or  five  days'  work  upon  the 
highways,  which  is  levied  upon  every  male  citizen  of  voting  age 
in  the  county.  This  money  is  spent  in  the  districts  where  it  is 
paid  and  is  expended  for  repair  work  only  on  roads  which  have 
not  yet  been  macadamized  by  the  county. 

The  money  appropriated  from  the  general  fund  is  spent  in  any 
part  of  the  county,  at  the  discretion  of  the  commissioners.  The 
county  has  not  issued  any  road  bonds,  paying  the  entire  cost 
out  of  the  regular  annual  taxes. 

The  plan  used  in  Fulton  County,  Georgia,  is  worthy  of  study 
and  imitation  in  other  localities,  and  we  hope  the  day  is  not  far 
distant  when  we  may  see  a  perfect  system  of  road  building 
inaugurated  by  every  State  in  the  Union.  You  can  start  the  work 
in  your  locality  by  writing  to  your  State  Experiment  Station  and 
to  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Documents  at  Washington,  D.C., 
for  bulletins  on  road  building.  Two  bulletins  you  should  have 
are  Roadmaking,  by  George  B.  Ellis,  of  Columbia,  Missouri,  and 
Bulletin  No.  2  of  the  Highway  Department  of  the  State  of  Ohio, 
entitled  The  Construction  of  County  Roads,  by  Sam  Huston. 
Read  these  and  other  bulletins  and  then  call  meetings  at  your 
schoolhouse  and  try  to  get  your  citizens  interested  in  good  roads. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Let  the  pupils  examine  the  roads  in  the  neighborhood  and  report  on 
the  following  points  :  (a)  drainage,  (&)  grade,  (c)  location. 

2.  Let  each  pupil  suggest  improvements  in  methods  for  grading  and 
draining  roads. 

3.  Examine  culverts  and  bridges,  and  note  all  defects.     Suggest  reme- 
dies. 

4.  Study  the  road  laws  of  different  States  and  suggest  improvements 
needed  in  your  own  State  laws. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Are  roads  an  index  to  the  civilization  of  a  country?     Why? 

2.  Discuss  early  Roman  attempts  at  road  building. 

3.  What  four  things  must  be  considered  in  road  building? 


276  ROADS  AND   ROAD   BUILDING 

4.  Discuss  (a)  location,  (6)  drainage. 

5.  Discuss  (a)  foundation,  (6)  surface. 

6.  Name  the  kinds  of  roads. 

7.  Discuss  (a)  common  dirt  roads,  (6)  sand-clay  roads. 

8.  Describe  (a)  plank  roads,  (6)  macadam  roads. 

9.  Discuss  (a)  telford  roads,  (6)   cobblestone  roads,  (c)  block-paved 
streets. 

10.  Discuss  (a)  brick  paving  and  (6)  asphalt  paving. 

11.  Describe  oiled  roads. 

12.  Describe  the  plan  of  road  improvement  followed  (a)  in  your  locality, 
(6)  in  Georgia. 

REFERENCES 

Macadam  Roads,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  338.     Sand-clay  and  Burnt-clay 
Roads,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  311. 


XL.    FARM  IMPROVEMENTS 


FRONT    PORCH 


PARLOR.    OR. 
SITTING-  ROOM 


DINING- 
ROOM 


PANTRY 


PORCH 


HALL. 
STAIR- 
WAY 


UNDER  the  head  of  farm  improvements  may  be  included  the 
country  home  or  house,  and  its  surroundings,  the  barn,  fences, 
gates,  and  other  things  of  this  nature. 

The  House.  —  In  building  a  house,  our  first  concern  is  generally 
to  secure  a  suitable  location.  If  possible  a  piece  of  ground  should 
be  selected  in  which 
the  surface  slopes 
downward  from  the 
house  in  every  di- 
rection, so  that  the 
drainage  will  be  as 
nearly  perfect  as 
possible.  The  site 
should  be  reason- 
ably close  to  the 
road,  and  when 
possible  it  will  be 
found  best  to  have 
the  house  face 
south  and  east. 
The  cellar  should 
be  well  drained, 
should  be  well  sup- 
plied with  windows, 
and  should  be  kept 
thoroughly  aired 
and  ventilated. 


BED 
ROOM 


KITCHEN 


PORCH 


p 

CISTERN 

First-floor  plan  of  a  two-story  house. 


The  cost  of  the 
house  and  the  kind 
of   materials    used 
will  vary  with  the  taste  of  the  individual  and  the  amount  of  money 
that  can  be  expended.     A  good  arrangement  is  found  in  the  two- 

277 


278 


FARM  IMPROVEMENTS 


BATH 
ROOM 


SEWIN& 
ROOM 


CLOSET 


story  house  having  a  kitchen,  pantry,  dining  room,  and  parlor 
or  reception  room  on  the  first  floor.  The  sitting  room,  sleeping 
rooms,  bath  room,  and  closets  are  frequently  placed  on  the  second 
floor.  Generally  it  will  be  found  more  convenient  to  have  the 
sitting  room  on  the  first  floor  adjoining  the  dining  room. 

The  teacher  should  have  the  students  study  and  criticise  the 
plan  given  here,  and  then  let  them  submit  house  plans  of  their 
own  designing.  It  will  also  be  an  interesting  exercise  for  each 

student  to  submit  a 
plan  of  his  own  home 
with  an  estimate  of  the 
cost  of  construction. 

The  House  Surround- 
ings. —  Plenty  of  shade 
trees  should  be  pro- 
vided, but  they  should 
be  so  grouped  that  they 
will  not  interfere  with 
the  view  in  front  of  the 
house,  nor  should  they 
shut  out  the  air  and 
sunlight  on  either  side 
of  the  house.  A  few 


HALL  AND  STAIEL\N4\Y 


BED 
ROOM 


BED 
ROOM 


Second  floor  plan  of  a  two-story  house. 


rose  bushes  and  flowers  may  be  judiciously  placed  here  and 
there,  but  they  should  not  be  placed  in  front  where  they  would 
obstruct  or  mar  the  view.  Along  the  sides  of  the  house  chrysan- 
themums may  be  used  to  screen  the  foundation  with  good  effect, 
while  the  crimson  rambler  or  the  Virginia  creeper  may  be  trained 
along  the  sides  of  the  veranda  to  protect  it  from  the  hot  sun 
in  the  summer  time. 

The  Farm  Plan.  —  The  general  plan  or  arrangement  of  the  farm 
will  vary  with  the  tastes  of  the  individual  and  the  means  at  his 
disposal,  but  whatever  the  arrangement  may  be  the  barn  and  out- 
buildings should  be  in  the  rear  and  out  of  view  as  much  as  possible. 
In  some  cases  the  barn  is  the  largest  and  most  important  building 
on  the  farm  instead  of  being  in  keeping  with  the  farm  residence. 
Let  there  be  nothing  to  suggest  that  the  farmer  thinks  more  of 
the  welfare  of  his  stock  than  of  the  welfare  of  his  family. 


FARM   IMPROVEMENTS 


279 


The  general  arrangement  of  the  yard,  lawn,  barn  lot,  feed  lot, 
poultry  yard,  orchard,  varies  greatly;  but  any  arrangement  in 
which  the  farm  residence  and  lawn  are  not  made  prominent  may 
be  regarded  as  faulty. 

The  students  should  study  and  criticise  the  plan  given  here 
and  then  submit  plans  of  their  own  designing  for  a  model  farm  of 
one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  or  more  of  land. 


WHEAT 

CORN 

OAT 

a 

FIELD 

FIELD 

FIELD 

0 

cf. 

u 
J 

DO 
D 

a 

PASTUf 

SMALL 
ORCHARD 

GARDEN 
SPOT 

FEED 
LOT  AND 
BARN 

}E 

FARM 
HOUSE 

CLOVER  FIELD 

FRONT 

LAWN 

P  UBL 

C           ROAD 

Plan  of  a  farm. 

The  Barn.  —  Nearly  every  farmer  has  his  own  ideas  about  how 
the  barn  shall  be  arranged,  and  any  plan  which  will  afford  shed 
room  for  the  stock,  grain,  hay,  vehicles,  and  farm  implements 
may  be  regarded  as  satisfactory.  Everything  should  be  made  as 
convenient  as  possible,  and  the  grain  bins  and  cribs  should  be  ar- 
ranged so  that  they  will  be  near  the  stalls  where  the  stock  is  to 
be  fed.  We  submit  here  the  plan  of  a  barn  owned  by  a  prosper- 
ous Missouri  farmer  which  seems  fairly  satisfactory.  This  barn 
is  a  two-story  structure,  having  on  the  ground  floor  a  row  of 
stalls  for  horses  at  the  left,  then  a  large  driveway  and  shed  room 
for  buggies  and  wagons.  In  the  center  there  is  a  large  crib  at  the 
rear  and  two  rows  of  stalls  in  front.  Adjoining  these  is  a  small 
hallwav,  and  to  the  right  of  it  there  are  an  implement  shed  and  a 


280 


FARM   IMPROVEMENTS 


cow  shed.     The  upper  part  of  the  barn  contains  the  grain  bins 
and  the  hay  loft. 

The  barn  should  be  provided  with  a  suitable  number  of  windows 
for  light  and  ventilation,  and  the  stalls  for  the  horses  should  be 
separated  from  each  other  by  double  walls.  Each  stall  should  be 
provided  with  trough  and  hay  rack  convenient  to  the  hall  or 


B-B 


B-B 


D! 

D 

DRIVE 
WAY 

WAGON 
SHED 

CORN  CRIB  p~ 

TOOL 

AND 

IMPLEMENT 
5HED 

D 

D 

Dt5Prt±& 
"1 

CROSS  HALL 

J  HALL 

°! 

COW 
SHED 

"fSTA-tbS- 

-S& 

bb^ 

°! 

B-B         D  D      D  D 

D  -  Doors        B-B-Double  Doors      H  -Hay  Shute 

First  floor  plan  of  a  barn. 

passageway,  so  that  the  feeding  may  be  done  without  having  to 
pass  through  the  stalls.  Each  morning  the  stalls  should  be  cleaned 
thoroughly. 

If  possible,  the  outside  of  the  barn  and  the  roof  should  be  painted 
in  order  to  protect  both  from  decay.  The  saving  thus  accom- 
plished will  more  than  pay  for  the  painting  in  every  case.  The 
size  of  the  barn  will  depend  upon  the  means  of  the  farmer  and  the 
amount  of  stock  and  machinery  to  be  sheltered.  The  farmer  in 
every  case  should  make  provisions  to  place  all  of  his  machinery 
under  cover.  The  practice  some  farmers  have  of  leaving  self 
binders,  mowing  machines,  plows,  corn  planters,  and  other  im- 
plements out  in  the  weather  during  the  whole  year  is  a  ruinous 
policy.  The  waste  occasioned  in  this  way  in  every  case  would 
more  than  pay  for  the  building  of  a  shed  room  for  storing  the  ma- 
chinery. The  same  is  true  in  regard  to  providing  proper  shelter 


FARM   IMPROVEMENTS 


281 


for  stock.  The  loss  to  farmers  through  disease  and  death  of  stock 
exposed  to  raw  weather  in  severe  climates  is  considerable  and 
could  be  avoided  by  providing  windbreaks  and  good  shed 
rooms. 

Fences.  — The  kind  of  fencing  used  by  the  farmer  will  depend 
largely  on  his  natural  surroundings.  In  wooded  sections,  where 
there  is  plenty  of  timber,  rail  fences  and  plank  fences  abound. 
In  many  cases  the  farmer  may  have  a  forest  close  at  hand  where 
he  and  his  helpers  may  split  and  make  all  the  rails  needed  at  a 
small  outlay.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  outside  fences  and  cross 
fences  are  frequently  of  rails,  while  the  lawn  will  be  inclosed  with  a 


OAT 
BIN 

OPEN 
SPACE 

OVER 

DRIVE 
WAY 

SHEAF  OATS 

SHELLED 
CORN 

HAY-LOFT 

WHEAT 
BIN 

Second  floor  plan  of  a  barn. 

plank  fence.  The  front  yard  will  often  look  more  inviting  with- 
out any  fence.  The  poultry  yard  should  be  surrounded  with 
a  high  paling  fence  or  a  regular  poultry  wire  fence. 

When  the  fence  rails  dry  out  and  get  somewhat  old,  farmers 
frequently  utilize  them  in  building  what  is  known  as  the  Ferguson 
fence.  In  this  arrangement  posts  are  set  in  the  ground  and  the 
fence  rails  are  attached  to  the  posts  by  means  of  fencing  wire  and 
staples. 

This  is  usually  a  very  economical  fence,  not  only  from  the  stand- 
point of  materials,  but  also  on  account  of  the  saving  of  space  in 
the  fence  row.  The  teacher  will  find  it  a  very  interesting  and  in- 
structive exercise  to  have  the  pupils  calculate  the  amount  of  waste 


282  FARM   IMPROVEMENTS 

space  in  a  forty-acre  field  inclosed  with  a  common  zigzag  rail 
fence  that  can  be  saved  by  means  of  a  Ferguson  fence.  Have 
them  estimate  also  the  value  of  this  ground  if  planted  in  corn 
or  the  staple  crop  of  the  neighborhood. 

For  posts,  white  oak,  black  locust,  and  catalpa  trees  are  gener- 
ally used.  Whenever  possible,  the  bottom  ends  of  the  posts 
should  be  dipped  in  coal  tar  or  pitch,  as  this  protects  them  against 
decay. 

In  prairie  countries  wire  fences  are  the  most  economical  and 
for  that  reason  are  in  general  use.  For  fencing  up  cattle  the  com- 
mon barbed  wire  is  preferred,  while  for  hogs  or  poultry  various 
forms  of  woven  wire  fences  are  used.  Where  timber  is  hard  to 
obtain,  concrete  or  metal  posts  have  been  tried  and  found  satis- 
factory. For  lawns  and  yards,  close-woven  wire  fences  and  iron 
pickets  produce  a  good,  effect,  but  are  somewhat  expensive. 

In  mountainous  sections  stone  fences  are  often  built  up  from 
the  loose  stone  gathered  on  the  fields  and  prove  very  durable  and 
satisfactory. 

Some  years  ago  there  was  a  great  deal  of  enthusiasm  over  the 
so-called  live  fences  or  hedges.  There  are  a  number  of  plants  that 
are  serviceable  for  this  purpose,  but  the  Osage  orange  stands 
at  the  head  of  the  list  for  many  sections.  When  kept  properly 
trimmed,  it  makes  a  very  effective  fence  against  marauding  people 
as  well  as  against  stock.  Other  plants  that  are  sometimes  util- 
ized for  hedges  are  the  buckthorn,  hawthorn,  and  the  honey 
locust.  The  chief  objection  to  live  fences  is  that  the  plants  are 
frequently  allowed  to  grow  too  large,  and  the  extensive  network  of 
roots  on  both  sides  of  the  fence  saps  the  life  and  nourishment  of 
the  soil  to  such  an  extent  that  no  kind  of  cultivated  plant  can  .be 
grown  within  twenty  or  thirty  feet  of  the  fence.  Besides,  the  high- 
grown  hedge  shuts  out  the  free  circulation  of  the  air  in  the  field 
and  makes  plowing  oppressive  to  the  team  as  well  as  to  the  work- 
man. Since  1885  the  enthusiasm  for  live  fences  on  farms  has 
been  on  the  wane,  and  they  are  now  becoming  very  scarce,  so  far 
as  their  use  for  general  farming  purposes  is  concerned. 

Since  1870  many  States  have  passed  stock  laws  requiring  every 
man  to  fence  in  his  own  stock  instead  of  fencing  out  those  belong- 
ing to  his  neighbors.  The  result  has  been  a  great  saving  to  farm- 


FARM   IMPROVEMENTS  283 

ers  in  every  case.  The  operation  of  the  stock  law  saved  the 
farmers  $150,000,000  in  New  York,  and  $90,000,000  in  Missouri. 

About  the  only  use  remaining  for  hedges  is  for  windbreaks  and 
for  ornamental  purposes  on  lawns  and  parks. 

Gates.  —  No  farm  is  complete  that  is  not  properly  supplied  with 
gates  that  lead  from  one  field  to  another  and  that  can  be  opened 
without  dismounting  when  traveling  on  horseback.  The  front 
gate  leading  from  the  public  road  to  the  lawn  should  be  so  arranged 
that  it  can  be  opened  by  a  mechanism  of  levers,  ropes,  and  pulleys 
without  the  driver's  getting  out  of  his  wagon  or  buggy. 

Such  gates  can  be  ordered  from  the  factory  through  the  local 
hardware  dealer,  but  if  the  farmer  has  a  mechanical  turn,  he  can 
easily  make  such  a  gate  himself.  If  the  gate  is  to  be  made  of 
wood,  it  will  be  found  best  to  get  some  light  material  like  white 
pine,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  gate  will  not  pull  off  the  hinges  or 
cause  the  gatepost  to  lean  out  of  position.  The  gateposts  should 
be  of  white  oak  or  cedar  and  must  be  at  least  a  foot  square  at  the 
top  and  considerably  larger  at  the  bottom.  The  post  to  which  the 
gate  is  attached  by  its  hinges  should  be  set  three  or  four  feet  in 
the  ground  and  firmly  anchored. 

Farm  mechanics  treats  of  the  making  of  the  necessary  farm 
conveniences;  the  building  of  walks,  driveways,  and  small  bridges; 
the  construction  of  cisterns,  water  tanks,  compression  tanks,  and 
water  troughs;  the  digging  of  ponds  and  lakes;  constructing  silos, 
ice  houses,  and  other  outbuildings;  the  setting  up,  care,  and  man- 
agement of  machinery;  blacksmithing;  the  management  of  steam 
and  gasoline  engines;  the  management  of  stoves  and  furnaces; 
farm  drainage;  and  other  kindred  subjects.  Boys  will  find  that 
their  work  in  manual  training  will  be  of  inestimable  value  to  them 
in  after  life  on  the  farm.  Often  a  whole  day's  work  is  lost  on  the 
farm  because  some  simple  pieces  of  ironwork  in  the  machinery 
used  has  been  broken  or  lost.  In  many  such  cases  the  young 
man  who  has  had  a  course  of  ironwork  in  his  manual  training 
exercises  could  repair  the  breakage  in  a  few  minutes  and  but  little 
time  would  be  lost.  The  same  young  man  could  easily  construct 
an  ice  box,  make  a  clothes  rack,  a  self-adjusting  clothes  line  for 
the  laundress,  and  many  other  necessary  conveniences.  His 
knowledge  of  blacksmithing  would  enable  him  to  sharpen  the 


284  FARM   IMPROVEMENTS 

plowshares  and  the  sections  of  the  sickle  blade  for  the  mowing 
machine  or  the  self  binder,  so  that  no  time  would  be  lost  in  the 
harvest  field  while  such  repairs  were  being  made.  The  farmer 
who  would  be  successful  must  be  a  farm  mechanic.  Those  T\  ho 
cling  to  old  ideas  will  soon  be  relegated  to  the  rear. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  location  and  construction  of  a  farmhouse. 

2.  Make  a  drawing  or  plan  of  your  own  home. 

3.  Discuss  the  house  surroundings. 

4.  Discuss  the  farm  plan. 

5.  Submit  a  diagram  showing  location  of  fields,  lawn,  and  barnyard  on 
your  father's  farm. 

6.  Discuss  the  plans  for  a  farm  barn. 

7.  Should  the  barn  have  windows  ?     Why  ? 

8.  Discuss  fencing  and  fences. 

9.  Discuss  gates  and  their  arrangement. 
10.   Discuss  farm  mechanics  in  a  general  way. 

REFERENCES 

Barn  Plans  and  Outbuildings,  Orange  Judd  Co. 
Homes  for  Homebuilders,  W.  D.  King. 
Modern  House  Plans  for  Everybody,  S.  B.  Reed. 
The  Healthful  Farm  House,  Helen  Dodd. 
Farm  Conveniences,  Orange  Judd  Co. 
Fences,  Gates,  and  Bridges,  Martin. 


XLI.    FUEL  AND   LIGHT 

THE  expense  of  fuel  and  light  in  many  parts  of  our  country 
constitutes  a  considerable  item  to  the  farmer,  and  some  attention 
should  be  given  it  in  our  study  of  agriculture. 

Fuel.  —  Any  substa-D.ce  used  for  making  fire  is  known  as  fuel. 
It  is  generally  a  form  of  carbon  or  some  compound  of  carbon. 
Fuels  may  be  divided  as  follows :  (1)  vegetable  fuels,  wood, 
methyl  and  ethyl  alcohol,  charcoal,  etc.;  (2)  mineral  fuels,  peat, 
lignite,  cannel  coal,  bitummous  coal,  anthracite,  etc. ;  (3)  mineral 
oils  and  gases,  naphtha,  gasoline,  benzine,  kerosene,  and  natural 
gas. 

Wood.  —  In  timbered  countries  the  common  fuel  is  wood,  be- 
cause of  its  cheapness.  In  prairie  countries,  when  it  is  a  long  way 
to  the  timber  supply,  the  use  of  wood  is  expensive.  If  a  quick 
hot  fire  is  desired,  some  of  the  soft  woods,  like  pine,  spruce,  fir, 
hemlock,  cedar,  or  redwood,  will  be  found  serviceable.  If  a 
slow  steady  fire  is  preferred,  some  of  the  hard  woods,  like  oak, 
hickory,  ash,  beech,  maple,  birch,  and  walnut,  will  be  found 
desirable. 

Charcoal.  —  Sometimes  cord  wood  is  piled  up  in  heaps  and  after 
it  has  been  covered  with  soil,  a  slow  fire  is  started  underneath  the 
whole  mass.  This  drives  off  the  volatile  gases,  chars  the  wood, 
and  produces  charcoal.  Charcoal  is  used  to  produce  heat  for 
warming  irons  and  for  broiling  purposes. 

Peat  is  a  substance  of  vegetable  origin,  partially  decayed,  form- 
ing a  kind  of  turf  or  bog.  It  is  found  in  lowlands  or  swamps,  in 
cool,  temperate  climates.  Large  quantities  of  it  are  found  in 
Ireland  and  in  Alaska.  When  desired  for  use,  the  peat  is  cut  into 
thin  oblong  blocks  and  dried  in  the  sun.  It  makes  a  fairly  good 
fuel. 

Lignite  is  of  a  brownish  hue  and  is  a  formation  between  peat 
and  true  coal,  in  which  the  woody  structure  is  retained.  It  is 
soft  and  crumbly.  Lignite  is  mined  in  Colorado,  Montana, 
Wyoming,  Oklahoma,  and  the  Dakotas. 

285 


286  FUEL  AND   LIGHT 

Bituminous  coal  is  soft  coal  much  of  which  burns  freely,  giving 
off  volumes  of  pitchy  smoke.  It  is  found  in  the  eastern  and 
western  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  also  in  Missouri,  Arkansas, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Kansas,  and  Oklahoma. 

Cannel  coal  is  a  variety  of  bituminous  coal.  It  is  much  harder 
than  ordinary  bituminous  coal  and  burns  with  but  little  smoke. 
It  is  found  in  few  localities  and  largely  preferred  for  blacksmithing. 

Anthracite  is  the  hardest  and  most  compact  coal  known  in  this 
country.  It  is  almost  free  from  hydrocarbons  or  oils  and  burns 
•with  a  slight  blue  flame  and  with  strong  heat.  On  account  of  its 
hardness  it  can  be  handled  without  smutting  one's  hands,  and  when 
placed  in  the  stove  it  burns  for  a  long  time.  If  the  stove  is  filled 
with  anthracite  in  the  morning,  usually  the  supply  will  last  all 
day  without  replenishing.  Nearly  all  of  the  anthracite  used  in 
the  United  States  is  mined  in  the  eastern  part  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
on  account  of  its  limited  area  of  production  it  is  generally  some- 
what expensive. 

Coke  is  coal  which  has  been  heated  in  ovens  or  kilns  from  which 
the  air  has  been  partially  excluded.  The  heating  is  continued 
until  all  the  hydrocarbons  have  been  burned  or  driven  off  and  a 
light  substance  resembling  charcoal  remains.  On  account  of  its 
lightness  and  cleanliness  it  makes  a  very  satisfactory  fuel. 

Coal  gas  is  a  very  important  fuel  in  cities  and  is  obtained  by 
distilling  coal.  It  is  stored  in  a  large  tank  and  piped  from  this 
to  the  places  where  it  is  to  be  used.  This  gas  is  also  used  for 
lighting  purposes. 

Water  gas  is  prepared  by  passing  water  in  the  form  of  super- 
heated steam  over  glowing  anthracite  coal.  The  resulting  gas 
contains  equal  volumes  of  carbon  monoxide  and  free  hydrogen. 
It  is  enriched  by  the  addition  of  petroleum  vapor  and  is  used  for 
both  lighting  and  heating.' 

Natural  gas  is  obtained  by  boring  to  a  considerable  depth 
into  the  earth  and  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Profitable  gas  wells  have  been  sunk  in  California,  in  the  Beau- 
mont district  in  Texas,  in  Oklahoma,  Louisiana,  western  Pennsyl- 
vania, West  Virginia,  Central  Ohio,  and  some  parts  of  Indiana. 

This  gas  is  used  for  heating,  lighting,  and  cooking,  and  its  use 
is  very  satisfactory.  On  account  of  its  freedom  from  sulphur 


FUEL  AND  LIGHT  287 

and  other  injurious  impurities  natural  gas  is  a  good  fuel  for  the 
(Smelting  of  iron  or  steel.  Natural  gas  is  piped  from  the  gas  fields 
to  considerable  distances.  The  Oklahoma  field  supplies  Kansas 
City,  and  the  Indiana  gas  belt  supplies  Chicago.  The  price  varies 
according  to  the  distance  the  gas  is  piped  and  the  quantity  that 
is  used.  In  Oklahoma  it  ranges  from  five  to  thirty  cents  per 
thousand  feet. 

Acetylene  gas  as  a  fuel  thus  far  has  not  been  satisfactory,  but 
it  is  used  in  many  places  as  an  illuminant.  It  may  be  prepared 
very  cheaply  by  treating  calcium  carbide  with  water.  When  im- 
pure it  has  an  offensive  odor  and  is  poisonous  when  breathed. 
Like  other  inflammable  gases,  it  is  explosive  when  mixed  with  air 
and  must  be  handled  with  extreme  care.  The  mixture  to  be 
explosive  must  contain  from  3  per  cent  to  65  per  cent  of  the  gas. 
For  safety  the  generator  should  be  kept  in  the  basement  or  in  a 
small  outbuilding.  This  will  safeguard  against  accidents  in  families 
where  there  are  small  children  or  other  careless  persons  around. 

Gasoline  gas  is  generated  from  gasoline  and  is  used  for  cooking 
and  for  lighting.  It  is  also  used  to  a  great  extent  by  plumbers 
and  tinners  for  heating  their  soldering  irons.  In  cooking  ranges 
-two  forms  of  generators  are  used.  In  the  ordinary  range  a  small 
portion  of  gasoline  is  allowed  to  run  down  into  a  little  cup  beneath 
each  burner,  and  then  the  liquid  is  shut  off  by  closing  the  valve 
and  the  portion  in  the  cup  is  ignited.  This  heats  the  burner 
above  until  it  is  hot  enough  to  convert  the  liquid  gasoline  into 
gas  when  the  gasoline  is  turned  on  again.  A  lighted  match  is  then 
applied  to  the  burner,  and  the  gas  will  burn  with  a  steady  blue 
flame.  The  gasoline  tank  on  top  of  the  stove  should  never  be 
filled  when  the  stove  is  lighted  or  when  there  are  lighted  lamps 
or  fire  stoves  near.  Gasoline  vaporizes  very  easily,  and  the  vapor 
ignites  readily,  hence  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  its  use  in 
order  to  guard  against  explosions.  Leaky  tanks  or  leaky  valves  and 
joints  must  be  repaired  promptly  or  accidents  are  sure  to  result. 

In  some  of  the  higher-priced  cooking  ranges  self-generators  are 
used  in  which  the  gasoline  vaporizes  as  it  passes  through  a  long  tube. 

Gasoline  makes  a  very  cheap  and  efficient  fuel  for  cooking  pur- 
poses on  the  farm.  Its  use  in  the  summer  time  is  advisable  be- 
cause of  the  small  amount  of  heat  given  off  into  the  room. 


288  FUEL  AND  LIGHT 

Petroleum.  —  The  word  petroleum  means  literally  rock  oil. 
This  name  was  given  it  because  the  oil  is  obtained  by  boring  into 
soft  layers  of  oil-bearing  rock.  Its  existence  was  known  for  some 
time,  but  it  was  not  found  in  paying  quantities  until  1859,  when 
Colonel  E.  L.  Drake,  of  Titusville,  Pennsylvania,  bored  a  well  in 
search  of  an  oil  which  he  expected  to  use  as  a  remedy  for  rheu- 
matism. Colonel  Drake  struck  oil  at  a  depth  of  sixty  feet,  and 
his  well  produced  him  about  two  thousand  gallons  the  first  year. 
Soon  other  wells  were  sunk,  and  oil  in  such  abundance  was  found 
that  it  became  possible  to  use  it  for  both  light  and  fuel.  Since 
then  oil  has  been  found  in  West  Virginia,  southern  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Colorado,  California,  Texas,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Louisiana. 

Crude  petroleum  is  of  a  dark  brown  or  black  color  and  has  a 
very  disagreeable  odor.  On  being  heated  the  following  liquids 
separate  and  distill  at  the  temperatures  mentioned: 

Naphtha              between    40-  70  F. 

Gasoline               between    70-  90  F. 

Benzine                between    90-150  F. 

Kerosene              between  150-280  F. 

Lubricating  oils  between  280-400  F. 

The  residue  contains  vaseline,  paraffine,  and  coal  tar.  Good 
kerosene  should  not  flash  or  take  fire  till  warmed  to  150°  F. 
The  flashing  test  varies  in  different  States,  and  some  require 
that  the  flashing  point  shall  be  as  high  as  200°.  Many  of  the 
lower  grades  of  kerosene  found  on  the  market  have  a  flashing  point 
of  only  135°.  A  lower  test  is  dangerous.  A  simple  test  may 
be  made  by  taking  a  teacup  one  quarter  full  of  cold  water  in 
which  a  thermometer  has  been  placed  and  adding  boiling  water 
till  the  temperature  reaches  110°  F.  Then  add  two  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  the  kerosene  and  try  to  ignite  the  oil  by  passing  a  lighted 
taper  over  it.  If  it  ignites,  it  is  not  safe.  Should  it  not  ignite, 
other  temperatures  may  be  tested  in  the  same  way  until  the  exact 
flashing  point  is  determined. 

On  account  of  its  cheapness  kerosene  is  the  universal  illuminant 
used  in  the  country.  The  crude  oil  is  used  for  fuel  in  locomotives 
on  certain  railway  lines,  on  account  of  its  cheapness  and  on  account 
of  its  being  more  cleanly  than  coal. 


FUEL  AND   LIGHT  289 

Alcohol.  —  Alcohol  is  used  as  a  fuel  for  spirit  lamps  by  dentists 
and  by  students  in  laboratories  where  gas  cannot  be  obtained. 
It  is  also  used  in  heating  chafing  dishes.  Recent  experimenters 
claim  that  it  can  also  be  satisfactorily  used  for  cooking  purposes 
in  countries  where  excessive  internal  revenue  taxes  are  not  levied 
upon  it. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  alcohol  that  can  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
one  known  as  methyl,  or  wood,  alcohol,  and  a  second  one  called 
ethyl,  or  grain,  alcohol. 

Wood  alcohol  is  obtained  by  the  dry  or  destructive  distillation  of 
wood.  It  was  discovered  by  Taylor  in  1812,  and  he  gave  to  it  the 
name  of  wood  spirit.  Wood  alcohol  is  poisonous  and  so  no  restric- 
tions are  usually  placed  upon  its  sale  for  fuel.  It  burns  with  a  pale 
blue  flame  and  produces  a  fair  amount  of  heat. 

Ethyl  alcohol  is  obtained  by  distilling  fermented  liquors,  such  as 
wine,  the  fermented  juice  of  sugar  beets,  malted  corn,  barley,  rye, 
and  other  grain.  In  England  and  France  ethyl  alcohol  employed 
for  industrial  purposes  is  exempted  from  taxation  to  a  large  extent 
when  it  has  been  treated  with  one  tenth  per  cent  of  wood  alcohol, 
resin,  and  certain  mineral  oils.  In  this  state  it  is  known  as  de- 
natured alcohol,  and  it  cannot  be  used  as  a  beverage.  Provision 
has  been  made  in  the  United  States  for  the  sale  of  denatured  al- 
cohol at  greatly  reduced  rates.  It  is  believed  that  the  production 
and  use  of  denatured  alcohol  will  give  renewed  impetus  to  the 
sugar  beet  industry  and  make  it  much  more  profitable. 

Candles.  —  One  of  our  earliest  means  of  illumination  was  by 
means  of  ordinary  candles.  They  give  a  weak  flickering  flame 
and  afford  a  very  poor  light,  but  for  a  long  time  there  was  no 
available  substitute  and  they  were  in  general  use.  Candles  are 
made  of  tallow,  wax,  or  spermaceti. 

Electricity.  —  In  cities  electricity  is  found  to  be  a  very  satis- 
factory and  economical  means  of  illumination.  The  common 
incandescent  lamp  was  devised  by  Thomas  Edison  in  1879  and  is 
suitable  for  electric  lighting  indoors.  It  consists  of  an  air-tight 
bulb  in  which  is  fitted  a  carbonized  filament  in  the  form  of  a  loop. 
When  a  current  of  electricity  is  passed  through  this  carbonized 
filament,  it  becomes  hot  and  gives  off  a  bright  light. 

For  street  lighting  what  is  known  as  the  arc  light  is  used.     It 

PRAC.  AGRICUL.  — 19 


290  FUEL   AND   LIGHT 

consists  of  two  carbons  about  the  size  of  a  lumberman's  lead 
pencil.  When  the  current  of  electricity  is  made  to  pass  from 
one  carbon  to  the  other,  a  bright  light  is  given  off.  Another  form 
of  electric  light  is  the  mercury  vapor  lamp,  which  consists  of  a 
long  glass  tube  exhausted  to  a  high  vacuum.  The  electric  cur- 
rent is  carried  by  the  mercury  vapor  from  one  terminal  to  the 
other  and  gives  off  a  yellow-greenish  light  of  dazzling  brilliancy. 

Electricity  is  used  for  heating  in  the  electric  furnace,  for  cooking, 
and  for  heating  laundry  irons.  It  is  serviceable  in  cities,  but  not 
economical  in  the  country  except  near  large  electric  power  plants. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Visit  the  coal  dealer  and  ascertain  the  price  of  coal  per  ton  and  com- 
pare this  with  the  cost  of  wood  in  your  locality. 

2.  Compare  the  cost  and  efficiency  of  soft  coal  and  hard  coal. 

3.  Compare  the  cost  of  soft  coal  and  natural  gas  for  fuel,  when  the 
gas  can  be  had  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  to  thirty  cents  per  thousand, 
for  two  stoves,  and  sixteen  thousand  feet  of  natural  gas  are  used  during  the 
month. 

4.  Compare  the  cost  of  coal  and  gasoline  for  a  cooking  range. 

5.  Compare  the  cost  of  lighting  four  rooms  for  three  hours  per  day  for  a 
month  by  kerosene,  gas,  and  electricity  when  all  three  may  be  had. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  fuel. 

2.  Name  the  general  classes  of  fuels. 

3.  Discuss  (a)  wood,  (6)  charcoal. 

4.  Describe  (a)  peat,  (6)  lignite. 

5.  Discuss  (a)  bituminous  coal,  (6)  cannel  coal,  (c)  anthracite,  (d)  coke. 

6.  Describe  (a)  water  gas,  (6)  coal  gas. 

7.  Discuss  natural  gas. 

8.  Discuss  (a)  acetylene,  (6)  gasoline. 

9.  Give  the  history  of  the  discovery  of  petroleum. 

10.  Describe  petroleum. 

11.  Name  some  of  its  distilled  products. 

12.  Discuss  alcohol  as  a  fuel. 

13.  Discuss  (a)  candles,  (6)  electricity. 

REFERENCES 

Physics,  Hoadley. 

Chemistry  —  Chapter  on   Fuels,   Wurtz. 

Domestic  Science  —  Chapter  on  Fuels,  Lucy  L.  Wilson. 

Commercial  Geography,  Gannett,  Garrison,  and  Houston. 


XLII.     STOCK  FEEDING 


Objects  of  Feeding.  — The  objects  of  feeding  are:  (1)  to  repair 
the  waste  of  the  system  and  maintain  life;  (2)  to  supply  heat; 
(3)  to  furnish  force  and  energy;  (4)  to  provide  the  materials 
needed  to  insure  increase  of  flesh  by  growth  or  fattening;  (5)  to 
make  special  products,  such  as  milk,  eggs,  feathers,  wool,  etc. 

Kinds  of  Food. —  We  usually  classify  food  for  stock  as  forage  or 
roughage  and  concentrates.  Under  the  first  we  include  cornstalks, 
hay,  straw,  silage,  tubers,  roots,  and  all  other  foods  which  contain 

a    large     amount     of  

crude  fiber  or  water  in 
proportion  to  the  nu- 
tritive elements;  while 
the  concentrates  are 
generally  the  seeds  of 
plants  and  their  prod- 
ucts which  contain  a 
minimum  amount  of 
crude  fiber  and  water. 

In   a   more   specific 
way  we  may  group  the 
kinds  of  food  for  stock 
as  follows:  (1)  albuminoids  or  proteids,  (2)  the  fats,  (3)  the  carbo- 
hydrates, (4)  mineral  matter. 

Albuminoid  or  Proteid  Feeds.  —  Food  substances  like  the  white 
of  egg,  the  gluten  of  wheat,  and  the  fibrin  of  meat,  containing 
nitrogen,  we  call  abuminoids  or  proteids.  These  foods  containing 
nitrogen  furnish  the  necessary  elements  for  making  muscle,  bone, 
horn,  hair,  blood,  and  milk.  Cotton  seed,  cotton-seed  meal,  pea- 
vine  hay,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  alfalfa,  and  all  other  leguminous 
plants  are  rich  in  proteid.  Proteids  contain  about  16  per  cent  of 
nitrogen,  so  that  if  we  know  the  amount  of  nitrogen  we  can  calcu- 
late the  amount  of  proteids  very  easily  by  multiplying  the  per- 

291 


On  a  stock  farm. 


292  STOCK   FEEDING 

centage  found  of  nitrogen  by  6.25.  The  total  amount  of  proteids 
thus  calculated  is  called  protein. 

The  fats  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  Fat  exists 
in  grains  and  in  the  seeds  of  certain  plants  like  flax  and  cotton. 
The  percentage  of  fat  in  fodder  is  variously  estimated  at  from  3 
to  8  per  cent  of  the  material  in  the  dry  state.  The  fats  are  espe- 
cially valuable  as  producers  of  energy  and  are  capable  of  producing 
two  and  one  fourth  times  as  much  energy  as  an  equal  amount  of 
starch  or  sugar.  The  amount  of  fat  content  may  be  determined 
by  dissolving  it  with  ether  or  other  solvents.  The  resultant 
quantity  is  known  as  crude  fat,  but  after  the  ether  has  been 
evaporated  and  other  impurities  have  been  removed  the  substance 
remaining  is  known  as  pure  fat. 

The  carbohydrates  consist  of  c  irbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen, 
but  the  last  two  are  always  found  in  the  same  proportion  as  they 
are  found  in  water.  The  carbohydrates  produce  force  and  energy 
and  help  to  keep  the  body  warm.  If  there  is  more  of  this  kind  of 
food  than  is  needed,  the  body  stores  it  up  in  the  form  of 'fat,  which 
may  be  drawn  upon  at  any  time  when  needed.  When  the  carbo- 
hydrates are  practically  consumed,  the  body  then  draws  upon  the 
proteids  for  the  food  necessary  to  keep  it  warm  and  to  furnish  the 
energy  required  for  work.  The  addition  of  these  foods  to  those 
containing  proteid  always  lessens  the  amount  of  proteid  required. 
Some  of  the  principal  carbohydrates  are  cellulose,  starch,  sugars, 
and  gums. 

Cellulose  is  the  substance  of  which  the  cell  walls  or  the  woody 
part  of  the  plant  is  mainly  Composed.  It  is  found  in  ripe  straw, 
in  seeds,  and  in  the  stems  and  husks  of  plants.  Its  most  familiar 
form  is  the  paper  of  commerce.  The  cellulose  incloses  the  starch 
grains,  and  on  account  of  its  not  being  very  soluble  it  protects 
the  starch  from  being  dissolved  and  washed  away  from  plants  by 
rains. 

Starch  is  the  common  form  of  plant  food,  and  it  consists  of  solid 
grains  ranging  in  size  from  one  three  hundredth  of  an  inch  to 
one  four  thousandth  of  an  inch.  Starch  enters  largely  into  the 
composition  of  grains  and  of  all  root  and  tuber  crops.  It  is  readily 
converted  into  grape  sugar  and  dextrine  when  treated  with  certain 
acids. 


STOCK   FEEDING  293 

Sugar  is  the  soluble  form  of  carbohydrates  which  circulates 
in  plants  and  is  immediately  available  as  plant  food.  When  the 
plant  manufactures  more  food  than  is  needed,  the  surplus  is  stored 
up  in  the  form  of  starch.  When  this  reserve  stock  of  food  is  needed, 
some  of  it  is  changed  back  into  sugar  by  the  help  of  a  ferment  known 
as  diastase.  On  account  of  their  solubility  the  sugars  are  digested 
with  ease.  The  principal  kinds  of  sugar  are  cane  sugar,  derived 
from  sugar  cane,  sorghum,  and  sugar  beets,  grape  sugar  from 
starch,  fruit  sugar  from  fruits  and  honey,  malt  sugar  from  malted 
grain,  and  milk  sugar  from  cow  milk.  The  amount  of  sugar  in 
ordinary  foodstuffs  is  small,  but  large  amounts  of  it  are  formed 
from  starch  and  other  carbohydrates  in  the  process  of  digestion. 

The  gums  are  not  important  as  food  compounds,  and  only  a 
small  amount  of  them  is  found  in  plants  used  for  stock  feeding. 

Pentose.  —  Besides  the  starch  and  cellulose  there  is  another 
group  of  carbohydrates  known  as  pectin  bodies,  which  give  to 
fruit  their  power  of  forming  jellies  when  boiled,  and  they  are  con- 
verted into  a  special  kind  of  sugar  known  as  pentose  when  digested. 
Little  is  known  of  their  exact  chemical  nature. 

Mineral  Matter.  —  In  addition  to  the  foods  just  mentioned  there 
are  certain  mineral  matters  needed  by  animals,  but  practically  all 
these  are  found  in  ordinary  fodders  in  sufficient  quantities  for  their 
immediate  needs.  Some  of  the  common  minerals  found  in  combi- 
nations in  the  body  are  salt,  lime,  soda,  and  potash.  Iron,  phos- 
phorus, magnesia,  and  a  few  other  minerals  occur  in  small  and 
varying  proportions.  Mineral  salts  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  brain  cartilage,  and  bone,  and  thus  play  an  important  part  in 
the  structure  of  the  body. 

The  amount  of  ash  or  mineral  matter  in  a  plant  is  determined 
by  carefully  burning  a  known  amount  of  the  substance  over  a  slow, 
steady  fire  long  enough  to  drive  off  all  the  organic  vegetable  matter. 
The  weight  of  the  residue  gives  the  amount  of  mineral  matter  pr 
crude  ash. 

Value  of  Food.  —  It  is  evident  that  only  a  part  of  the  food  eaten 
by  animals  is  retained  and  assimilated  by  their  bodies  and  the 
remainder  passes  off  as  manure.  If  an  analysis  of  the  food  is  made 
and  also  one  of  the  manure  to  determine  the  amount  of  nutrients 
remaining,  it  becomes  an  easy  and  simple  matter  to  calculate  the 


294  STOCK  FEEDING 

nutritive  value  of  the  food  used.  If  we  subtract  the  amount  of  the 
nutrients  found  in  the  manure  from  the  amount  of  the  same  nutri- 
ents in  the  food,  the  result  will  show  the  amount  of  digested  mate- 
rial. According  to  some  authorities  a  milk  cow,  a  fattening  steer, 
or  a  work  horse  will  generally  need  each  day  about  two  pounds  of 
digestible  protein,  twelve  or  thirteen  pounds  of  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, and  approximately  a  half  pound  of  digestible  fats.  The 
season  of  the  year,  the  condition  of  the  animal,  and  many  other 
things  are  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  so  that  these  estimates 
are  only  approximately  correct. 

Nutritive  Ratio.  —  According  to  Professor  Bailey  the  amount  of 
energy  yielded  by  fats  is  about  two  and  one  fourth  times  as  much 
as  that  given  by  an  equal  weight  of  sugar  or  starch ;  that  is,  the 
fats  are  considered  two  and  one  fourth  times  as  valuable  for  food 
stuffs  as  carbohydrates.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  the  ratio  of  the 
digestible  protein  to  the  digestible  carbohydrates  plus  two  and 
one  fourth  times  the  digestible  fat,  and  the  operation  may  be 
expressed  very  conveniently  in  the  following  formula  : 

Carbohydrates  +  (Fat  X  2.25) 

Protein  i 

For  example,  if  the  amount  of  digestible  carbohydrates  =  34 
and  the  amount  of  digestible  fat  =  1.42,  while  the  amount  of 
digestible  protein  is  about  6.00,  we  have: 

34  +  (1.42  X  2.25)      34  +  3.195     37.195 
6.00  6  6 

=  6.199  =  6.2  approximately. 

That  means  the  nutritive  ratio  is  1  to  6.2  for  this  particular  kind  of 
feed. 

A  ration  is  the  amount  of  food  given  an  animal  during  a  day 
or  any  stated  period.  Rations  are  classified  as  balanced,  narrow, 
medium,  and  wide,  according  to  the  proportion  of  carbohydrates 
and  fats  to  the  amount  of  protein. 

A  balanced  ration  is  one  in  which  the  proportion  of  carbohydrates 
and  fats  to  the  amount  of  protein  has  been  so  adjusted  or  balanced 
as  to  give  the  most  satisfactory  results  with  the  least  possible 
expenditure.  The  ordinary  limit  for  a  well-balanced  ration  is 


STOCK  FEEDING  295 

generally  placed  at  1  to  5.2.  Many  farmers  would  find  it  better  to 
sell  a  part  of  their  corn  and  purchase  some  food  stuff,  like  linseed 
meal,  rich  in  protein  instead  of  feeding  so  much  corn. 

The  feeding  of  unbalanced  rations  is  often  not  only  disastrous 
to  the  farmer  from  a  financial  point  of  view,  but  it  is  also  likely  to 
prove  detrimental  to  the  proper  growth  and  development  of  the 
stock. 

A  Narrow  Ration.  —  When  the  amount  of  the  carbohydrates  and 
digestible  fat  is  relatively  small  compared  with  the  amount  of 
proteid  present,  the  ratio  is  narrow  and  the  ration  is  designated  as  a 
narrow  ration.  Oil  meal  has  a  ratio  of  1  to  1.7,  and  a  feed  made 
up  of  this  alone  would  afford  only  a  narrow  ration.  In  fact,  any 
ration  less  than  one  to  five  may  be  designated  as  a  narrow 
ration. 

A  Wide  Ration.  —  When  the  amount  of  carbohydrates  and  di- 
gestible fat  is  relatively  large  compared  with  the  amount  of  protein 
on  hand,  the  ratio  is  large  and  we  have  what  is  designated  as  a 
wide  ration.  For  example, .  the  nutritive  ratio  of  oat  straw  is 
1  to  33.7,  which  would  make  it  a  feed  having  a  wide  ration.  Any 
feed  in  which  the  ratio  is  much  over  1  to  9  would  be  regarded  as 
a  feed  of  wide  ration. 

A  Medium  Ration.  —  When  the  nutritive  ratio  is  not  less  than 
1  to  6  nor  more  than  1  to  10,  the  ration  is  designated  by  some 
authorities  as  a  medium  one.  Thus  in  common  maize  or  Indian 
corn,  which  has  a  ratio  of  1  to  9.8,  we  have  an  example  of  a  medium 
ration. 

Feeding  Standards.  —  Many  trials  or  feeding  experiments  have 
been  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  proper  ratio  of  the 
carbohydrates  and  fats  to  the  amount  of  protein  necessary,  but  the 
standards  generally  accepted  are  those  prepared  originally  by 
Wolff  and  subsequently  modified  by  Lehmann.  (See  Tables  1,  2, 
and  3,  Appendix.)  These  standards  must  not  be  followed  slav- 
ishly, but  should  be  modified  as  circumstances  may  seem  to 
demand.  Such  standards,  however,  are  useful  as  a  basis  of  com- 
parison and  as  guides  in  the  selection  of  proper  food  stuffs  in 
making  up  rations. 

Compounding  Rations.  — It  is  evident  that  we  must  combine 
several  kinds  of  foods  in  order  to  secure  the  proper  proportion  of 


296  STOCK   FEEDING 

the  necessary  nutrients.     With  roughage  we  must  use  a  certain 
amount  of  concentrates  in  order  to  obtain  a  balanced  ration. 
If  we  were  to  use  a  ration  composed  of 

Clover 10  Ib. 

Oats 10  Ib. 

Oat  Straw       .         .         .  5  Ib. 

and  desired  to  know  whether  this  would  prove  a  suitable  ration 
for  a  horse  doing  light  work  or  heavy  work,  the  only  thing  re- 
quired would  be  to  find  the  nutritive  ratio  as  follows  : 
Amount  of  digestible  carbohydrates: 

In  10  Ib.  of  clover  hay  -  10  X  |^  =    3.58 

100 

In  10  Ib.  of  oats  =  10  X  —         4.73 

In    5  Ib.  of  oat  straw     =    5  X  ^-        1.93 

JLUU 


Total  amount  of  carbohydrates       =  10.24 
Digestible  fat  or  ether  extract: 

In  10  Ib.  of  clover  hay   =  10  X  —   =  .17  Ib. 

In  10  Ib.  of  oats  =  10  X  —   =  .42  Ib. 

In    5  Ib.  of  oat  straw        =    5  X  —  =  .04  Ib. 


Total  amount  =  .63 

Amount  of  digestible  protein : 

In  10  Ib.  of  clover  =  10  X  —  =    .68 

100 

In  10  Ib.  of  oats  =  10  X—          .92 

In  5  Ib.  of  oat  straw  =    5  X  —   =    .06 


Total  amount  1.G6 

Hence, 
10.24  +  (2.25  Y  .63)      10.24  +  1.418 


66  66~ 

that  is,  the  nutritive  ratio  is  1  :  7. 


=  7 


STOCK  FEEDING  297 

By  consulting  Table  1,  Appendix,  it  will  be  found  that  this  is 
the  nutritive  ratio  for  a  horse  when  only  light  work  is  required 
of  it.  Would  the  amount  of  the  ration  required  be  greater  for  a 
horse  weighing  fifteen  hundred  pounds  ?  Why  ? 

General  Suggestions  on  Feeding.  — The  careful  feeder  will 
take  pains  to  see  that  his  stock  are  neither  overfed  nor  underfed. 
In  order  to  do  this  he  must  know  the  composition  of  the  various 
feeding  stuffs  and  their  relative  values.  Stock  should  have  all 
the  feed  that  they  can  digest  well,  but  this  does  not  mean  neces- 
sarily that  they  should  have  all  that  they  will  eat.  Especially  is 
this  true  of  the  feeding  stuffs  known  as  concentrates.  Horses  and 
cattle  both  are  frequently  foundered  by  eating  too  much  corn 
when  a  very  heavy  feed  is  given  them  on  this  alone.  Generally 
a  balanced  ration  will  give  the  best  and  most  satisfactory  results. 
Cattle  and  sheep  should  have  a  ration  consisting  of  two  thirds 
roughage  and  one  third  concentrates;  for  horses  the  amount 
should  be  one  half  roughage  to  one  half  concentrates;  while  for 
pigs,  hogs,  and  poultry  the  proportion  of  concentrates  should  be 
much  larger.  During  the  winter  months  a  large  amount  of  dry 
feed  is  given  stock,  and  in  the  spring,  when  green  feed  is  to  be 
given,  the  change  must  be  made  gradually ;  and  the  same  rule  is  to 
be  observed  in  the  fall  when  stock  are  changed  from  green  feed 
to  dry  feed.  Carelessness  in  this  matter  is  sure  to  cause  trouble. 
Experience  has  shown  that  a  certain  amount  of  variety  in  food 
is  just  as  essential  for  animals  as  for  people.  There  i-s  some 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  number  of  feeds  that  should  be 
given  stock  each  day,  but  whatever  is  given  should  always  be 
given  at  regular  intervals.  Work  horses  are  generally  fed  three 
times  per  day,  but  cattle,  hogs,  and  fattening  stock  are  generally 
not  fed  oftener  than  twice  a  day. 

In  feeding  stock  for  fattening  purposes  a  number  of  things 
must  be  considered  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results.  Bulletin 
No.  76,  issued  by  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  in  December, 
1907,  gives  a  number  of  fruitful  suggestions  in  reference  to  the 
fattening  of  cattle  and  hogs. 

In  the  matter  of  the  most  favorable  season  for  fattening  cattle 
a  majority  of  the  feeders  showed  a  decided  preference  for  summer 
or  some  other  season  rather  than  winter.  A  majority  of  the 


298  STOCK  FEEDING 

feeders  also  reported  that  cattle  gained  materially  faster  in  sum- 
mer and  at  something  like  four  fifths  the  cost  of  similar  cattle 
fed  in  winter.  Gains  on  grass  alone  were  made  very  cheaply, 
but  the  cattle  were  low-priced  because  they  were  not  in  market- 


crass -fed  cattle. 

able  condition  and  had  to  be  sold  to  feeders  with  sufficient  margin 
to  enable  the  buyer  t<3  fit  them  for  market. 

The  average  length  of  the  full  feeding  period  as  given  in 
this  bulletin  was  one  hundred  and  seventy-seven  days,  or  practi- 
cally six  months.  The  opinions  as  to  the  kind  of  steer  giving 
the  greatest  profit  were  as  follows: 

Missouri       ....  1345  Ib. 

Iowa 1358  Ib. 

Illinois         ....  1390  Ib. 

Nebraska     .         .         .         .  1400  Ib. 

From  these  reports  it  would  appear  that  the  best  average  weight 
for  feeding  cattle  is  thirteen  hundred  and  sixty-seven  pounds. 
Feeding  cattle  weighing  from  fifteen  hundred  to  sixteen  hundred 
pounds  was  generally  found  not  very  profitable.  The  average 
age  for  feeding  cattle  full  feed  was  given  at  two  years  of  age,  but 
a  large  number  of  feeders  reported  in  favor  of  beginning  full 
feed  at  three  years  of  age. 

All  the  feeders  used  roughage,  but  they  seemed  to  think  it 
made  no  material  difference  as  to  the  kind  or  the  amount  used. 
The  experiments  made  at  the  Missouri  Station  showed  that  the 
roughage  affected  strongly  the  rate  and  cost  of  gain  and  the 


STOCK   FEEDING  200 

finish  of  the  cattle.  It  was  shown  that  with  cattle  bringing 
five  cents  a  pound,  corn  when  combined  with  clover  or  cowpea 
hay  was  worth  eight  and  one  fourth  cents  more  per  bushel  than 
when  combined  with  timothy.  The  same  experiments  showed 
that  a  large  consumption  of  roughage  does  not  necessarily  cause 
a  diminished  grain  consumption. 

Another  factor  which  must  not  be  overlooked  in  feeding  is  the 
buying  margin,  because  on  this  will  depend  the  profit  that  may  be 
made  in  feeding.  The  gains  put  on  cattle  during  the  fattening 
process  will  vary  from  six  cents  to  ten  cents  per  pound,  while  the 


On  a  cattle  ranch. 

steer  will  bring  on  the  market  an  average  of  four  to  seven  cents 
per  pound.  This  situation  is  met  by  lowering  the  price  at  which 
the  steer  in  thin  condition  may  be  purchased,  and  places  the 
burden  of  the  expense  of  the  fattening  process  upon  the  cattle 
raiser  rather  than  on  the  feeder  or  the  meat  consumer.  The 
average  margin  for  a  six  months'  feed  in  summer  is  estimated 
at  $1.02  per  hundred  on  two-year-old  cattle,  while  for  a  similar 
feed  in  winter  an  approximate  margin  of  $1.50  would  be  required. 
Stock  fed  under  shelter  and  in  well-ventilated  barns  do  not 
gain  so  rapidly  nor  so  economically  as  those  fed  in  an  open  shed 
or  those  confined  in  an  open  lot,  so  that  it  seems  the  question 
of  providing  stables  is  not  so  important  as  one  might  think.  It 
is  always  well,  however,  to  provide  shelter  from  storms  and  damp- 
ness, as  most  breeds  of  cattle  are  not  prepared  to  weather  snow  and 
cold  rains  without  discomfort  and  harm. 


300  STOCK   FEEDING 

Comparing  the  relative  profits  on  cattle  and  hogs  on  the  Chicago 
market  for  the  past  twenty-four  years,  it  has  been  found  that 
the  hogs  have  brought  a  higher  price  per  pound,  and  experiments 
show  that  less  food  is  required  to  make  a  pound  of  gain  on  hogs 
than  on  cattle.  From  this  it  appears  that  hog  feeding  is  more 
profitable  than  cattle  feeding.  The  reports  of  the  other  market 
centers  of  the  West,  in  Ft.  -Worth,  Kansas  City,  and  St.  Louis, 
seem  to  bear  out  this  statement. 

The  number  of  hogs  required  to  utilize  the  waste  per  steer, 
•according  to  the  Reports  of  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station,  will 
vary  greatly  with  the  character  of  the  feed,  the  way  in  which  it  is 
prepared,  and  with  the  size  and  age  of  the  cattle.  The  range  is 
given  as  from  two  to  three  hogs  per  steer  on  snapped-ear  corn, 
one  and  one  half  on  husked-ear  corn,  about  one  on  shelled  corn, 
and  from  one  third  to  one  half  a  hog  per  steer  on  crushed  or 
ground  corn. 

Another  important  feature  in  .stock  feeding  that  should  receive 
more  attention  than  is  usually  given  it  is  the  matter  of  providing 
an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water  near  the  place  of  feeding. 
The  use  of  water  troughs  for  this  purpose  will  generally  be  found 
advisable.  The  students  should  send  to  their  State  Experiment 
Station  for  any  bulletins  that  may  be  published  on  feeding 
cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  mules,  or  other  stock.  It  will  also  be  found 
interesting  to  secure  the  bulletins  from  other  States  and  to 
make  comparisons  of  the  results  and  the  various  conclusions 
reached. 

EXERCISES 

1.    Ascertain  the  weight  of  each  of  the  following:   (a)  a  bushel  of  corn, 
(6)  a  bushel  of  oats,  (c)  a  bushel  of  wheat,  (d)  a  bushel  of  rye. 

2.  Refer  to  Table  2,  Appendix,  and  calculate  the  amount  of  digestible 
protein  in  a  bushel  of  corn  as  compared  with  a  bushel  of  oats. 

3.  Compare  the  amount  of  digestible  -carbohydrates  in  a  bushel  of  oats 
with  a  bushel  of  cowpeas. 

4.  According  to  Table  1,  Appendix,  how  much  food  is  required  for  a 
ration  for  a  horse  of  one  thousand  pounds  doing  light  work  ?     What  is  the 
nutritive  ratio? 

5.  What  is  the  amount  of  food  that  would  be  required  for  three  milch 
cows  giving  sixteen  pounds  of  milk  daily  ? 


STOCK   FEEDING  301 

6.  Determine  the  nutritive  ratio  in  a  feed  of  ten  pounds  of  red  clover 
hay  and  ten  pounds  of  oats. 

7.  According  to  the  table  this  would  be  a  ration  for  a  horse  doing  what 
kind  of  work  ? 

8.  Determine  a  ration  for  a  rnilch  cow  composed  of  red  clover,  oat  straw, 
wheat  bran,  and  green  fodder  corn  with  a  ratio  of  1 :7. 

9.  Calculate  a  suitable  ration  for  fattening  cattle  in  the  first  period 
consisting  of  corn  and  two  kinds  of  roughage. 

10.  Calculate  a  suitable  ration  for  fattening  swine  in  the  second  period. 

1 1.  Calculate  a  ration  for  growing  cattle  of  eight  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
and  aged  eighteen  to  twenty-four  months  containing  one  concentrate  and 
two  kinds  of  roughage. 

12.  If  it  takes  six  tons  of  hay,  one  hundred  bushels  of  oats,  and  twenty 
dollars'  worth  of  pasture  to  keep  twenty  sheep  a  year,  what  is  the  cost  per 
head  when  hay  is  worth  six  dollars  per  ton  and  oats  are  worth  twenty-five 
cents  per  bushel  ? 

13.  What  feeds  have  a  large  percentage  of  protein? 

14.  When  corn  is  worth  thirty  cents  per  bushel  and  oats  twenty-five 
cents  per  bushel,  what  is  the  relative  cost  of  the  protein  in  each,  and  which 
is  the  cheaper  feed  at  the  prices  mentioned  ? 

15.  Determine    the  nutritive  ratio  of    a  ration   composed  of    twelve 
pounds  of  clover  hay,  six  pounds  of  oats,  and  four  pounds  of  cotton-seed 
meal.     Would  you  vary  this  proportion  ?     Why  ? 

16.  How  many  head  of  hogs  are  required  for  fifty  head  of  fattening  cattle 
fed  on  snapped-ear  corn  ?    On  husked-ear  corn  ?    On  shelled  corn  ? 

17.  When  corn  is  worth  thirty  cents  a  bushel  and  fat  cattle  are  worth 
five  cents  per  pound  on  the  market,  what  can  a  farmer  afford  to  pay  for  stock 
cattle  ? 

18.  From  the  table  calculate  the  relative  amounts  of  fertilizing  materials 
in  a  ton  of  corn. 

19.  Calculate  the  amount  of  fertilizer. in  two  tons  of  red  clover  hay  and 
the  same  amount  of  cowpea  hay. 

20.  Which  contains  the  greatest  amount  of  fertilizing  elements,  a  ton  of 
corn  or  a  ton  of  oats  ?     Explain. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  objects  of  feeding. 

2.  What  is  roughage  ?     What  are  concentrates  ? 

3.  Name  the  classes  of  foods  or  feeds. 

4.  Discuss  albuminoid  feeds. 

5.  Describe  the  fats  and  the  carbohydrates. 

6.  Discuss  (a)  cellulose,  (&)  starch,  (c)  sugars,  (d)  gums,  (e)  pentose. 

7.  What  is  said  of  mineral  matter? 

8.  Discuss  the  value  of  food. 

9.  Explain  what  is  means  by  nutritive  ratio. 


302  STOCK   FEEDING 

10.  Discuss  rations. 

11.  Discuss  (a)  balanced  rations,  (6)  narrow  rations,  (c)  wide  rations, 
(d)  medium  rations. 

12.  What  is  said  about  feeding  standards  ? 

13.  Explain  how  rations  are  compounded. 

14.  Give  some  general  suggestions  on  feeding. 

15.  What  kind  of  ration  generally  gives  the  best  result  ? 

16.  What  is  the  most  favorable  season  for  feeding  ?     Why  ? 

17.  What  is  the  average  length  of  feeding  period  for  cattle  ? 

18.  What  is  said  of  the  buying  margin  ? 

19.  Discuss  the  value  of  roughage.     Discuss  value  of  shelter. 

20.  How  many  hogs  should  there  be  to  each  steer  in  feeding  cattle  ? 

REFERENCES 

The  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  170. 

The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22. 

Sheep  Feeding,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  49. 

Hog  Raising  in  the  South,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  100. 

Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  106. 

The  Soy  Bean  as  a  Forage  Crop,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  58. 

Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry. 

Feeding  of  Animals,  Jordan. 

Stock  Feeding,  Bulletin  67,  South  Carolina  Station. 


XLIII.    ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

Farm  Animals.  —  Animal  husbandry  treats  of  the  raising 
and  the  proper  management  of  animals,  whether  for  home  or 
market  use  or  for  their  products.  It  includes  stock  raising, 
dairy  husbandry,  poultry  raising,  fish  culture,  oyster  farming, 
bee  culture,  and  other  subjects  of  a  similar  nature. 

A  large  part  of  the  farm  products  are  converted  into  animal 
products  before  they  are  available  for  the  use  of  man.  We 
have  already  learned  that  it  is  poor  farm  economy  to  sell  all 
the  farm  crops  from  year  to  year,  unless  the  prices  are  high 
enough  to  cover  the  cost  of  additional  fertilizers,  as  this  rapidly 
exhausts  the  soil  and  leaves  it  in  an  impoverished  condition. 
It  is  generally  better  to  feed  the  crops  to  animals  that  are  kept 
on  the  farm  so  that  a  large  portion  of  the  fertilizing  elements 
may  be  returned  to  the  soil.  By  referring  to  Table  2,  Appendix, 
it  is  an  easy  matter  to  calculate  to  what  extent  soil  improvement 
will  take  place,  in  a  field  where  cattle  or  other  stock  are  fed. 
This  will  be  better  understood  if  we  study  the  reasons  for  keeping 
domestic  animals. 

These  reasons  are  as  follows:  (1)  to  furnish  directly  or  indirectly 
food,  clothing,  and  other  products  of  value  to  man;  (2)  to  act  as 
beasts  of  burden  or  all  work;  (3)  to  aid  in  maintaining  the  fertility 
of  the  land;  (4)  to  provide  a  means  of  disposing  of  the  crops; 
(5)  to  diversify  agricultural  occupations;  (6)  to  afford  employ- 
ment to  the  farmer  during  the  winter  and  inclement  weather  when 
outdoor  farm  work  would  be  impossible;  (7)  to  assist  in  keeping 
the  farm  clear  of  weeds;  (8)  to  serve  as  companions  under  certain 
conditions. 

Many  animals  will  be  found  profitable  in  one  part  of  our  country 
and  unprofitable  in  another  place.  A  close  and  careful  study 
should  be  made  of  the  cost  of  keeping  various  animals  and  the 
returns  that  the  farmer  may  reasonably  expect.  This  involves 
to  a  certain  extent  a  study  of  the  functions  or  offices  of  domestic 
animals. 


304  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  Animal  and  the  Soil.  —  Attention  has  already  been  called 
to  the  importance  of  feeding  crops  on  the  farm  to  stock  instead 
of  selling  them.  In  pasturing  practically  all  the  fertilizing  ele- 
ments are  returned  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  manure.  In  stable 
feeding  the  manure  can  be  collected  and  scattered  later  over 
the  farm. 

The  Animal  and  the  Crops.  —  Frequently  the  market  is  glutted 
with  grain  and  other  crops,  and  the  gain  or  profit  to  the  farmer 
which  he  has  a  right  to  expect  can  only  be  realized  by  feeding 
the  crops  to. stock.  As  a  rule,  the  farmer  who  sells  all  his  crops 
does  not  prosper  ;  while  the  farmer  who  handles  stock  in  connec- 
tion with  his  farming  and  exercises  good  judgment  in  buying 
his  stock  is  successful. 

The  Animal  as  an  Eradicator  of  Pests.  —  In  weedy  pastures 
sheep  and  goats  have  been  found  very  useful  in  cleaning  up  the 
weeds.  Hogs  also  are  very  serviceable  in  eating  up  the  larvae 
and  grubs  in  the  ground  and  in  the  fallen  fruit  in  orchards.  Chick- 
ens and  turkeys  are  useful  in  catching  and  destroying  grasshoppers 
and  many  other  injurious  insects. 

The  Animal  and  Work.  —  The  ox,  the  horse,  the  mule,  and  the 
burro  all  play  an  important  part  in  the  work  of  man.  It  is  true 
that  steam  and  electricity  and  the  gasoline  engine  may  be  made 
to  do  much  of  the  work  formerly  required  of  animals,  but  these 
utilities  will  never  entirely  supplant  the  use  of  animals.  There 
will  always  be  a  demand  for  animals  in  plowing,  hauling,  driving, 
and  as  the  source  of  power  for  driving  farm  machinery,  in  spite 
of  the  great  advances  made  in  cheapening  the  use  of  steam  and 
electricity. 

The  Animal  and  its  Products.  —  A  great  deal  of  our  food, 
such  as  pork,  beef,  mutton,  poultry,  fish,  eggs,  fresh  milk,  con- 
densed milk,  butter,  and  cheese,  we  owe  directly  or  indirectly 
to  animals. 

Other  valuable  products  furnished  by  animals  are  wool,  leather, 
hair,  horn,  bone,  feathers,  glue,  and  certain  waste  products 
valuable  as  fertilizers. 

The  Animal  and  Diversified  Farming.  —  Animals  need  a  va- 
riety of  foods,  and  this  necessitates  a  variety  of  crops.  This 
leads  to  rotation  of  crops  and  incidentally  to  diversified  farm- 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


305 


ing.  The  farmer  soon  learns  that  the  one-crop  plan  is 
unprofitable. 

The  Animal  as  a  Source  of  Employment  in  the  Winter.  —  The 

handling  of  stock  in  the  winter  and  inclement  weather  affords 
the  farmer  and  his  helpers  employment  at  a  season  of  the  year 
when  otherwise  they  would  be  idle.  In  the  Northern  States 
plowing  and  the  ordinary  outdoor  occupations  of  the  farmer 
cannot  be  carried  on  during  the  winter  and  inclement  weather. 


Wool  producers. 

Animals  as  Companions.  —  Many  animals  are  valued  by  man 
not  so  much  from  a  commercial  point  of  view  as  from  a  social 
point.  Among  the  animals  that  might  be  mentioned  in  this  list 
are  the  various  kinds  of  dogs  and  cats,  rabbits,  hares,  pet  squir- 
rels, canary  birds  and  other  kinds  of  songsters,  guinea  pigs,  and 
the  like.  The  raising  and  selling  of  animals  of  this  class  forms 
an  important  industry  in  some  parts  of  our  country. 

Improvement  of  Livestock.  —  In  our  stud/  of  plants  we  learned 
that  many  of  our  common  vegetables  were  developed  by  careful 
selection  from  wild  plants  and  good  cultivation.  Careful  selection 
and  proper  mating  of  animals  through  many  generations  have 

PBAG.   AGHICUL.  —  20 


306  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


rn 


given  us  improved  animals.  The  predecessors  of  the  modern 
plump  and  well-rounde/1  beef  steer  were  not  handsome  or  well- 
formed;  the  razor-back  scrub  hog  stands  as  a  mute  witness  of  the 
wonderful  difference  existing  between  him  and  the  well-developed 
specimens  of  the  market  hogs;  while  horses  and  other  domestic 
animals  show  developments  equally  great. 

These  changes  have  been  brought  about  mainly  by  selection  of 
the  best  individuals  having  certain  marked  characteristics,  care- 
fully mating  these  individuals,  and  giving  them  favorable  environ- 
ment. When  a  group  of  animals  is  secured  of  marked  resemblances 
and  the  offspring  inherit  the  same  qualities  and  characteristics,  the 
variety  or  group  is  designated  as  a  breed.  In  improving  farm  ani- 
mals the  stock  raiser  may  have  one  of  three  objects  in  view: 
(1)  to  improve  the  herd  or  the  home  stock  of  the  farm,  (2)  to  im- 
prove the  breed  as  a  whole,  (3)  to  originate  new  breeds. 

Improving  Scrub  or  Mixed  Stock.  —  By  grading  up  his  herd  or 
flock  with  animals  of  some  distinct  breed  the  owner  may  make  it 
compare  quite  favorably  with  the  recognized  breed. 

Improving  the  Breed  as  a  Whole.  —  Many  stock  raisers  work 
chiefly  for  the  improvement  of  a  recognized  breed.  Individual 
animals  having  the  regular  type  characteristics  most  strongly 
developed  are  selected  and  mated  from  time  to  time  until  a 
good  breed  is  developed.  This  method  of  breeding  calls  for  con- 
siderable skill  and  intelligence  and  is  somewhat  expensive. 

Originating  New  Types.  —  Some  stock  raisers,  in  place  of  trying 
to  improve  existing  breeds,  spend  their  time  and  energy  in  dis- 
covering and  developing  new  types.  Animals,  like  plants,  fre- 
quently develop  individuals  showing  marked  variations  from  the 
parent  type.  By  properly  selecting  a  number  of  individuals 
showing  the  desired  variation  and  properly  mating  their  offspring, 
a  breed  may  eventually  be  developed  which  will  tend  to  come  true 
to  the  type.  The  origination  of  Polled  Durham  cattle,  Poland 
China,  Duroc  Jersey,  and  Chester  White  swine  in  our  own  country 
demonstrates  what  may  be  done  in  originating  new  breeds  by 
improving  or  amalgamating  older  breeds.  Scientific  knowledge 
seems  likely  to  facilitate  this  work  in  the  future. 

Pure-bred  Stock.  —  Pure-bred  animals  are  those  whose  parents 
belong  to  the  same  breed. 


ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY  307 

Scrub  Stock.  —  Animals  whose  ancestors  belong  to  no  distinct 
breed  are  designated  as  scrubs. 

Graded  Stock.  —  Grading  is  the  mating  of  a  common  inferior 
animal  or  scrub  parent  with  one  that  is  highly  improved.  The 
mating  may  be  made  either  way,  but  it  is  more  practical  and 
economical  to  have  the  male  for  the  pure-bred  parent.  The 
form,  size,  color,  and  useful  qualities  of  the  grade  offspring  gen- 
erally approximate  those  of  the  pure-bred  parent  rather  than 
those  of  the  scrub  parent.  If  the  sire  is  a  pure-bred  animal  and 
the  female  or  dam  is  scrub  stock,  the  individuals  of  the  first 
generation  are  called  half-bloods  or  half-breeds.  The  offspring 
resulting  from  the  half-blood  females  and  a  pure-bred  sire  are 
called  three-fourths-breeds.  When  a  half-breed  sire  is  mated 
with  a  scrub  female,  the  resulting  offspring  is  designated  as  a 
quarter  breed.  The  process  of  improving  inferior  animals  by 
breeding  is  designated  as  grading  -up.  When  the  process  has 
been  continued  until  the  resulting  offspring  are  seven  eighths 
pure,  they  are  designated  as  high  grades. 

Crossing.  —  When  parents  of  two  distinct  breeds  are  mated,  the 
resulting  offspring  is  known  as  a  cross.  If  animals  of  two  species 
are  mated,  the  offspring  is  a  hybrid.  Most  hybrids  are  sterile, 
and  in  that  case  further  development  of  the  hybrid  type  is  impos- 
sible. The  mule  is  a  common  example  of  a  sterile  hybrid.  It  is 
one  of  our  most  useful  beasts  of  burden. 

Line  breeding  is  the  restriction  of  selection  and  mating  to  the 
individuals  of  a  single  line  of  descent, 

Inbreeding  is  the  breeding  together  of  closely  related  individ- 
uals like  a  sire  and  offspring  or  like  a  dam  and  offspring,  etc. 
It  intensifies  blood  lines  and  makes  the  most  of  exceptional 
individuals. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  animal  husbandry. 

2.  Name  the  reasons  for  keeping  domestic  animals. 

3.  Discuss  animals  in  reference  to  (a)  the  soil,  (6)  the  crops. 

4.  Discuss  animals  as  (a)  eradicators  of  certain  pests,  (6)  the  beast  of  all 
work. 

5.  Name  some  of  our  food  supplies  that  we  owe  to  animals. 

6.  Discuss  animals  and  diversified  farming. 


308  ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY 

7.  What  is  said  of  animals  as  a  source  of  employment  ? 

8.  Discuss  animals  as  companions. 

9.  Discuss  live  stock  improvement. 

10.  Name  the  three  principles  that  should  guide  the  farmer  in  animal 
breeding. 

11.  What  is  meant  by  pure-bred  stock  and  graded  stock? 

12.  Discuss  crossing. 

13.  What  is  (a)  line  breeding,  (6)  inbreeding? 

REFERENCES 

Principles  of  Breeding,  Davenport. 

The  Study  of  Breeds,  Thomas  Shaw. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  Charles  S.  Plumb. 


XLIV.     DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


THE  number  and  kinds  of  animals  kept  will  depend  on  the  loca- 
tion, on  the  kinds  of  crops  raised,  and  to  a  certain  extent  on  the 
individual  tastes  of  the  farmer  himself.  The  importance  of  live 
stock  in  the  economy  of  the  farm  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  accord- 
ing to  the  last  Census  they  represented  15  per  cent  of  the  total 
value  of  all  farm  property. 

The  domestic  animals  that  may  be -found  on  farms  in  this  country 
are  as  follows :  (1)  horses,  (2)  cattle,  (3)  hogs,  (4)  sheep,  (5)  goats, 
(6)  poultry,  (7)  bees,  (8)  animals  valued  as  pets  or  companions. 

HORSES  AND  MULES 

Origin  of  Horses.  —  The  Indian  ponies  and  the  wild  horses  found 
in  the  West  are  all  the  offspring  of  horses  originally  brought  from 
the  Old  World.  Re- 
mains of  a  prehistoric 
horse  have  been  found 
in  the  Northeastern 
and  Middle  States,  in 
the  Southern  States,  in 
California  and  Oregon, 
and  also  in  the  Bad 
Lands  of  Nebraska, 
Wyoming,  and  South 
Dakota;  but  these  had 
all  disappeared  long 
before  the  early  dis- 
coverers and  settlers 
came  to  America  from 
the  Old  World.  It  is 
probable  that  horses  were  first  utilized  for  war  purposes  only, 
and  mention  of  their  use  by  the  Israelites  and  the  Egyptians 
is  made  in  the  Bible.  The  Greeks  and  the  Romans  learned 

309 


Arabian  horse. 


310 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


French  draft  horse. 


the  value  of  horses  at  an  early  time,  and  the  stories  of  their 
famous  chariot  races  will  always  live  in  history.     The  curb  bit 

we  owe  to  the  genius 
of  the  Romans  and 
the  snaffle  bit  to  the 
Greeks. 

The  various  breeds 
of  horses  have  been 
developed  through  the 
influence  of  different 
climates  and  different 
kinds  of  food  and 
through  the  influence 
of  careful  and  con- 
tinued selection  from 
time  to  time  of  indi- 
viduals showing  certain 
marked  characteristics 
and  desirable  qualities.  The  improvement  of  a  great  many  of  our 
breeds  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  influence  of  the  Arabian 
horses.  As  early  as 
1603,  Arabian  horses 
were  brought  to  Eng- 
land and  crossed  with 
native  stock.  After 
1700  many  oriental 
horses  were  imported 
into  England,  and  they 
exercised  a  strong  in- 
fluence in  improving 
the  breeds.  Since 
then  many  very  im- 
portant breeds  have 
been  developed. 
They  may  be  classed 
as  follows :  (1)  draft 
horses,  (2)  carriage  or  coach  horses,  (3)  speed  horses,  (4)  ponies. 
Draft  horses  are  those  that  are  specially  adapted  for  drawing 


English  draft  horse. 


DOMESTIC  ^ANIMALS 


311 


Coach  horse. 


heavy  loads.  They  are 
usually  of  heavy  build 
and  have  broad  backs, 
upright  shoulders,  and 
short,  muscular  legs  set 
wide  apart.  The  lead- 
ing representatives  are 
the  Percheron,  devel- 
oped in  France;  the 
Clydesdale,  which  origi- 
nated on  the  river 
Clyde  in  Scotland;  the 
Shire,  a  native  of  Eng- 
land dating  back  to  the 
Roman  conquest;  the 
Suffolk,  which  came 
from  Suffolk  County  in  the  eastern  part  of  England,  dating  back 
to  1700;  the  Belgian  draft;  and  the  Boulonnais,  a  French  draft 
horse  somewhat  larger  and  coarser  than  the  Percheron. 

All  draft  horses  are  large  and  weigh  from  fifteen   hundred   to 

twenty-five      hundred 
pounds. 

Carriage  or  coach 
horses  are  those  used 
for  drawing  coaches 
and  vehicles  of  that 
class.  They  are  styl- 
ish in  appearance  and 
lighter  than  draft 
horses.  They  should 
be  about  sixteen  hands 
high  and  should  weigh 
from  one  thousand  to 
fifteen  hundred  pounds, 
according  to  the  breed. 
Coach  horses  have  a 
lean  graceful  head, 
Race  horse.  broad  forehead,  promi- 


312 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


nent  eye,  long  arching  neck,  round  full  body,  long  level  croup 
high  carriage  of  tail,  and  they  must  have  legs  showing  cleanness, 
good  bone,  and  plenty  of  muscle.  The  leading  breeds  are  the 
hackney,  with  an  English  ancestry  dating  back  to  1303,  or 
earlier;  the  French  coach,  known  in  France  since  prehistoric  times; 
the  German  coach,  with  an  ancestral  line  dating  back  five  cen- 
turies in  Germany ;  and  the  Cleveland  bay,  whose  native  home 
was  on  the  Cleveland  hills  of  York  County,  England. 

Speed  horses  have  long  legs,  sloping  shoulders,  and  slender  bodies. 
Some  of  the  leading  types  are  the  thoroughbred,  derived  from  the 
union  of  Arabian,  Barb,  and  Turkish  stock  with  the  lighter  English 
stock,  from  which  was  developed  an  animal  of  great  speed,  unusual 
endurance,  and  fine  symmetry  of  form;  the  American  trotting 
horse,  including  such  noted  families  as  the  Hambletonians,  the 
Mambrinos,  the  Morgans,  and  the  Clays.  The  pacers  also  belong 

to  the  list  of  speed  animals,  but 
their  ancestry  does  not  differ 
essentially  from  that  of  the 
trotting  horses.  Some  idea  of 
the  value  of  speed  animals  may 
be  gleaned  from  the  following 
prices  which  have  been  paid 
for  some  of  them  :  Arion, 
$120,000 ;  Dan  Patch,  the 
famous  pacer,  $60,000;  Nancy 
Hanks,  $45,000;  Sunol,  $41,000; 
and  Maude  S.,  $40,000. 

Ponies  are  horses  of  small 
build,  some  of  which  are 
modeled  on  the  small  draft 
type  and  others  on  the  trotting- 
horse  type.  The  chief  breeds  are  the  Indian  ponies  of  the 
northern  and  western  part  of  the  United  States,  the  mustang 
ponies  of  the  South  and  Southwest,  and  the  Shetland  ponies 
brought  to  various  parts  of  this  country  from  Scotland  and  the 
Shetland  Islands.  The  Shetland  ponies  are  very  gentle  and 
serviceable  for  the  use  of  small  children.  Their  average  height 
ranges  from  thirty-six  to  forty-four  inches. 


p, 


Shetland  pony. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


313 


The  Indian  ponies  and  mustangs  are  the  descendants  of  small 
horses  brought  to  this  country  by  the  early  settlers  from  Spain  and 
France.  They  are  animals  of  great  endurance,  but  as  a  rule  they 
are  not  very  gentle  or  tractable. 

Mules.  —  The  mule  is  a  hybrid  resulting  from  crossing  a  jack  on  a 
mare,  and  is  not  a  true  breed.  It  has  been  known  and  valued  as  a 
beast  of  burden  since  the  days  of  the  early  Romans  and  Greeks. 
Mule  raising  in  the  United  States  dates  back  to  1787,  when  George 
Washington  was  presented  with  a  fine  jack  by  the  king  of  Spain. 
Mules  are  valued  chiefly  as  draft  animals,  but  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States  they  are  used  for  saddle  purposes.  Missouri,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  and  Texas  furnish  the  most  of  the  mules  in  use 
at  the  present  time.  For  draft  purposes  they  usually  command 
higher  prices  than  horses  because  of  their  greater  endurance  and 
strength,  their  resistance  to  disease,  and  their  great  longevity. 
Cases  are  on  record  where  mules  have  lived  to  seventy  years  of 
age  and  were  still  able  to  do  effective  work  at  the  ago  of  thirty 

years. 

CATTLE 

Most  of  the  cattle  in  this  country  have  been  developed  from 
English  breeds.  The  use  of  cattle  dates  back  to  the  earliest  known 
times,  and  in  some 
of  the  early  nations 
cattle  and  cattle 
hides  were  used  as 
money  in  the  ab- 
sence of  circulat- 
ing medium. 

In  the  central 
and  western  parts 
of  the  United 
States  there  were 
formerly  great 
herds  of  bison,  or 
American  buffalo, 
as  they  are  sometimes  called  and  some  of  these  have  been  crossed 
on  some  varieties  of  European  cattle  to  good  advantage. 

In  the  Philippine  Islands  a  kind  of  buffalo  is  found  that  serves 


Ox  cart,  India. 


314  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 

as  beast  of  all  work.  In  China,  Borneo,  Java,  and  India  is  found 
a  species  of  cattle  known  as  zebu  cattle  which  differ  in  many 
respects  from  our  own  cattle.  In  these  countries  they  are  used  to 
draw  plows,  carts,  and  all  kinds  of  vehicles.  In  the  United  States 
oxen  have  always  been  used  to  a  large  extent  in  lumber  camps, 
where  their  services  have  been  useful  in  logging.  One  may  see 
large  numbers  of  them  in  Washington,  Oregon,  and  some  of  the 
Southern  States. 

Cattle  are  raised  principally  for  beef  and  dairy  purposes.  Their 
hides  are  valuable  for  making  leather,  their  hoofs  for  glue,  their 
hair  for  plaster,  their  bones  for  buttons,  ornaments,  and  ferti- 
lizers, and  their  horns  are  utilized  for  making  powder  flasks,  dinner 
horns,  knife  handles,  and  other  useful  articles. 

Beef  Breeds. — The  chief  beef  breeds  are  the  Aberdeen-Angus, 
the  Galloway,  Devon,  Red  Polled  Cattle,  Shorthorns,  Polled  Dur- 
hams,  Herefords,  Sussex,  West  Highland,  Simmenthal,  and  native 
or  scrub  cattle. 

Aberdeen-Angus  Breed.  — These  cattle  originated  in  northeastern 
Scotland,  in  Aberdeen  County  and  vicinity.  They  have  compact 
bodies,  polled  or  hornless  head,  smooth  neck,  and  prominent 
shoulders;  the  back  has  great  relative  depth  and  tends  to  dip  at 
the  withers,  and  the  legs  are  generally  short  and  finely  shaped. 
The  usual  color  is  black. 

Galloway  cattle. —  The  native  home  of  the  Galloway  cattle  is  the 
ancient  province  of  Galloway,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Scotland. 
The  early  varieties  were  horned,  but  all  those  of  the  present  time 
are  polled  or  hornless.  The  color  is  generally  black,  but  a 
brownish  or  reddish  tint  in  the  black  is  not  regarded  as  objec- 
tionable. They  are  somewhat  smaller  and  coarser  in  bone  and 
hair  than  the  Aberdeen-Angus,  and  they  are  so  hardy  that  they 
readily  withstand  all  extremes  of  temperature.  The  hides  of 
Galloway  cattle  are  especially  valuable,  when  properly  tanned, 
for  making  fur  overcoats,  lap  robes,  and  floor  rugs. 

The  Devon  cattle  originated  in  the  counties  of  Devon  and  Som- 
erset in  southwestern  England.  The  color  of  Devon  cattle  varies 
from  light  red  to  dark  red.  The  hair  about  the  muzzle  is  of  a  flesh 
color,  while  that  about  the  eyes  is  a  creamy  tint.  The  body  is  of 
medium  size  and  the  legs  are  small.  The  North  Devon  cattle  have 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  315 

fine  flesh  and  are  valued  for  beef  production,  while  the  South  Devon 
cattle  are  larger,  coarser,  lighter  colored,  and  are  raised  chiefly  for 
dairy  purposes. 

The  red  polled  cattle  are  natives  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  counties 
in  England.  They  are  useful  for  both  beef  and  dairy  purposes. 
The  head  is  lean,  the  withers  moderately  broad,  body  well  ribbed, 
hips  not  prominent,  and  weight  medium.  The  color  varies  from 
light  red  to  dark  red.  A  great  many  of  these  cattle  are  found  in 
Missouri,  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Texas,  but  they  do 
well  anywhere  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Shorthorns. — The  home  of  the  shorthorn  cattle  is  in  the  counties 
of  York,  Durham,  and  Northumberland  in  northeastern  England. 
It  is  our  heaviest  type  of  beef  cattle  and  it  outnumbers  any  other 
breed.  Shorthorns  are  also  highly  prized  for  dairy  purposes  and 
have  good  records.  Shorthorns  have  small  short  horns  generally 
curving  forward,  short  neat  neck,  body  with  broad  back  and  large 
girth,  broad  brisket,  hip  bone  well  covered,  rump  broad,  long,  and 
well  filled  over  with  flesh,  and  thighs  and  quarters  rather  long, 
thick,  and  deep  from  front  to  rear.  The  color  may  be  solid  red, 
white,  red  and  white,  or  roan.  Among  many  feeders  the  pure  reds 
are  preferred,  but  at  the  stockyards  the  roans  are  also  highly  es- 
teemed. The  shorthorns  are  widely  distributed  through  the  Ohio 
Valley  and  the  Mississippi  Valley,  but  they  are  not  so  well  adapted 
to  the  Western  States,  where  cattle  have  to  shift  for  themselves  on 
the  range.  Some  blooded  shorthorns  are  quite  valuable,  and  have 
commanded  prices  ranging  from  $5000  to  $40,600,  the  latter  being 
the  price  paid  in  1873  for  the  Eighth  Duchess  of  Geneva. 

Polled  Durhams.  — This  breed  is  derived  from  the  shorthorn  and 
originated  in  the  United  States.  The  characteristics  of  this  breed 
are  as  follows:  (1)  true  polled  heads,  (2)  the  true  colors  and 
recognized  markings  of  the  shorthorn,  and  (3)  not  less  than 
approximately  96  per  cent  of  shorthorn  blood. 

The  Herefords  are  natives  of  Hereford  County,  England,  and  are 
said  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  this  country  by  Henry  Clay, 
in  1817,  at  Lexington,  Kentucky. 

Herefords  have  broad  foreheads,  keen  eyes,  bright,  tapering  horns, 
small  head  with  white  face,  deep  chest,  broad  loin,  wide  level  hips, 
broad  ribs,  clean  tapering  thigh,  short  legs,  good  body  and  good 


316 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


flesh.  In  a  general  way  we  may  say  that  the  upper  and  rear  por- 
tion of  the  body  is  of  a  middle  red  color,  while  the  face,  sides  of 
the  head,  belly,  and  the  lower  parts  of  a  Hereford's  legs  are  of  a 
striking  white. 

Herefords  are  widely  distributed  west  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
and  they  are  especially  well  suited  to  the  great  ranges  in  the  West, 
where  cattle  are  frequently  subjected  to  great  extremes  of  tem- 
perature while  on  scant  feed.  They  make  good  beef  cattle,  but  are 
not  always  satisfactory  for  dairy  purposes.  In  weight  they  run 
next  to  the  shorthorns. 

Sussex  Cattle. —  The  home  of  the  Sussex  cattle  is  in  Sussex 
County,  England,  and  they  were  first  introduced  into  this  country 
in  1884  by  Mr.  Overton  Lea  of  Nashville,  Tennessee.  They  are  of 
a  solid  red  color,  have  a  blocky  body,  long  thick  hair,  and  thick 
beefy  thighs.  They  resemble  Herefords,  but  differ  from  them  in 
color. 

The  West  Highland  Cattle  are  natives  of  the  high  uplands  of  Scot- 
land and  are  said  to  have  been  brought  to  the  United  States  about 

1880.  They  are  small 
cattle,  weighing  from 
900  to  1200  pounds 
and  are  very  hardy. 
They  produce  beef  of 
a  very  fine  quality  and 
flavor. 

Simmenthal  or  Swiss 
Cattle.  — There  are  two 
distinct  races  of  cattle 
found  in  Switzerland 
that  deserve  a  brief 
mention  here.  One  of 
these  is  the  brown 
Swiss,  and  the  other  the  Simmenthal  or  spotted  breed.  It  is 
thought  that  this  breed  of  cattle  is  very  old.  Some  of  the  brown 
cattle  are  highly  prized  for  dairy  purposes.  They  were  first  in- 
troduced into  the  United  States,  in  1869,  by  Mr.  H.  M.  Clark,  of 
Belmont,  Massachusetts.  The  Simmenthals  are  used  mostly 
for  beef. 


Brown  Swiss  cow. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


317 


Native  Cattle.  —  These  are  cattle  made  up  of  mixed  breeds  and 
scrub  cattle.  When  these  are  crossed  with  pure-bred  or  high 
grade  cattle,  sometimes  a  fair  grade  of  beef  cattle  is  produced. 

Dairy  Breeds. —  Dairy  cattle  differ  notably  from  beef  cattle. 
Dairy  breeds  are  small  but  have  large  stomachs,  and  wide  udders 
with  many  large  branching  milk  veins.  The  head  is  usually  small, 
the  mouth  large,  the  neck  long  and  muscular;  the  brisket  is  not  so 
wide  as  in  beef  cattle,  the  chest  does  not  have  great  thickness,  the 
ribs  are  long  and  arched,  the  hips  are  somewhat  prominent,  the 
thighs  are  somewhat  muscular,  and  the  legs  set  square  with  the 
toes  pointing  directly  forward. 

The  principal  dairy  breeds  are  the  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Ayrshire, 
Holstein-Friesian,  Dutch  belted,  French  Canadian,  Kerry,  and 
brown  Swiss. 

The  Jersey  Cattle. —  The  Jersey  is  a  native  of  the  island  of  Jersey 
in  the  English  Channel.  Its  introduction  into  this  country  dates 
back  to  1850,  at  Hart- 
ford, Connecticut.  The 
Jersey  has  a  fawn-like 
color,  some  being  of  a 
lemon  or  orange  fawn, 
and  others  being  a 
squirrel-gray  fawn. 
The  horns  are  some- 
what short  and  amber- 
colored  with  blackish 
tips. 

The  Jerse}7^  cows  are 
celebrated  for  their 
milk  and  butter,  and  it  is  not  unusual  for  a  Jersey  to  produce 
five  thousand  pounds  of  milk  and  from  four  to  eight  hundred 
pounds  of  butter  in  a  year. 

The  Guernsey  cattle  originated  on  the  islands  of  Guernsey  and 
Alderney  in  the  English  Channel.  They  were  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  in  1824,  by  Reuben  Haines  of  Germantown,  Penn- 
sylvania. They  are  larger  than  Jerseys  and  also  much  coarser. 
Their  hair  is  of  a  yellowish  or  reddish  fawn  color,  while  the  skin 
is  of  a  pronounced  yellow  color.  The  udder  is  also  larger  than 


Jersey  cow. 


318 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


Guernsey  cow. 


that  of  the    Jersey    and    shows   more   development  in   front. 

Guernseys  are  highly  prized  for  milk  and  butter. 

Ayrshire  Cattle.  — 
The  native  home  of 
the  Ayrshire  is  in  the 
county  of  Ayr  in  the 
southwestern  part  of 
Scotland.  They  .are 
a  hardy  and  thrifty 
class  of  cattle  and 
were  introduced  into 
this  country,  in  1822, 
by  H.  W.  Hills,  at 
Windsor,  Connecticut. 
They  are  of  medium 
size  and  vary  in  color 
from  red  or  brown  to 

white.     They  rank  high  in  quantity  of  milk,  but  it  is  only  of 

average  quality.     They  are  especially  adapted  to  short  grass 

ranges. 

The  Holstein-Friesian  Cattle.  —  These  cattle  are  natives  of  Hol- 
land and  they  have  an 

ancestry  dating  back 

a  thousand   years  or 

more.       They      were 

brought    to    America 

by   the   early    Dutch 

settlers  of  New  York. 

They  are  large  in  body 

and    have    long   lean 

heads,  well-sprung 

ribs,   prominent  hips, 

and    large     U-shaped 

udders.     In  color  the 

American  varieties  are 

generally  white  with  black  patches  or  black  with  white  patches, 

while  in  Holland  many  breeds  are  found  in  which  red  and  white 

are  the  color  combinations  in  place  of  black  and  white. 


Ayrshire  cow. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


319 


The  Holstein-Friesians  lead  all  other  breeds  in  the  production 
of  milk.  An  average  cow  will  produce  from  seven  thousand  to 
nine  thousand  pounds  of  milk  a  year  if  given  the  right  kind  of 
care,  while  exceptional  cows  will  give  much  larger  amounts.  The 
milk  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  cows  contains  only  from  three  to 
four  per  cent  of  butter  f at,  but  the  large  quantity  given  offsets  the 
low  grade  of  its  quality  so  that  it  may  be  profitably  used  for 
butter  making. 

The  Dutch  Belted  Cattle.  —  Like  the  Holstein-Friesians,  the 
Dutch  belted  cattle  are  natives  of  Holland,  and  they  were  brought 
to  New  York,  in  1838, 
by  D.  H.  Haight  of 
Goshen,  New  York. 
They  are  usually  of  a 
black  color  with  a  large 
belt  of  white  extending 
like  a  blanket  around 
the  body.  They  are 
found  present  in  New 
York,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Pennsylvania, 
Massachusetts,  Missis- 
sippi, California,  and 
Ohio.  In  size  the 
Dutch  belted  cattle 
are  much  smaller  than  the  Holstein-Friesians.  Their  yield  in  milk 
usually  ranges  from  eight  thousand  to  nine  thousand  pounds  per 
year. 

The  French  Canadian.  — These  cattle  are  supposed  to  be  the 
descendants  of  cattle  brought  originally  from  Normandy  and 
Brittany  in  France  to  the  province  of  Quebec  in  Canada.  They 
are  very  hardy  and  resemble  -the  Jersey.  Their  color  is  a  solid 
black  or  black  with  a  yellowish  fawn  stripe  along  the  back.  Their 
horns  are  generally  white  with  black  tips.  Their  milk  is  of  a  good 
quality,  but  it  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  Jersey  or  the  Guernsey. 

The  Kerry.  — These  cattle  originated  in  the  Kerry  Mountains 
in  the  western  part  of  Ireland.  They  are  quite  small  and  range 
in  weight  from  five  hundred  to  eight  hundred  pounds.  In  height 


Dutch  belted  cow. 


320  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

they  seldom  exceed  forty  inches.  As  a  milk  producer  the  Kerry 
ranks  very  high  not  only  in  quality  but  also  in  quantity.  On  ac- 
count of  its  ability  to  subsist  on  poor  and  scanty  feed  the  Kerry 
is  sometimes  called  the  poor  man's  cow. 

Dairying.  —  Milk  is  a  model  food  which  furnishes  every  element 
necessary  for  the  nourishment  of  the  body,  and  it  is  cheaper  and 
more  economical  than  the  equivalent  amount  of  any  other  kind 
of  food. 

The  chief  dairy  products  are  milk,  cream,  butter,  and  cheese. 
Besides  these  there  are  several  important  by-products,  such  as 
skim  milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey,  which  add  to  the  profits  of 
dairying.  Formerly  our  entire  supply  of  butter  and  cheese  was 
made  on  the  farm,  but  now  these  articles  are  furnished  us  from  the 
creameries  and  factories. 

Much  of  the  value  of  these  articles  will  depend  on  the  quality 
of  the  milk  from  which  they  are  made.  This  is  determined  by 
sampling  the  milk  and  ascertaining  the  amount  of  butter  fat 
present  by  means  of  a  Babcock  milk  tester. 

The  old  method  of  separating  the  cream  from  the  milk  depended 
on  the  action  of  gravity.  The  milk  was  placed  in  a  vessel  of  any 
kind  and  was  cooled  rapidly  to  a  temperature  of  60°  F.  and  was 
left  undisturbed  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours.  The 
fat  globules,  being  lighter  than  the  other  constituents  of  the  milk, 
rise  to  the  top  and  form  a  layer  of  cream  which  may  be  skimmed 
off  without  difficulty.  When  this  process  is  carried  on  in  shallow 
pans,  we  have  what  is  known  as  the  shallow  setting  of  cream. 
When  the  milk  is  placed  in  cans  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  deep  and 
set  in  vessels  of  water  kept  at  a  temperature  of  40°  or  less  for 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  we  have  what  is  known  as  the  deep- 
setting  system.  By  the  shallow-setting  system  only  about  75 
per  cent  of  the  butter  fat  is  saved,  while  by  the  deep-setting  system 
from  80  to  90  per  cent  of  the  butter  fat  is  saved  in  the  cream. 
In  the  centrifugal  separator  the  milk  is  passed  into  a  revolving 
bowl,  where  the  skim  milk,  being  the  heavier,  is  forced  towards 
the  outside  of  the  vessel,  and  the  cream,  being  the  lighter  liquid, 
flows  towards  the  center  of  the  vessel.  As  the  skim  milk  reaches 
the  outer  edge  of  the  vessel  it  passes  into  openings  of  small 
tubes  which  convey  it  to  an  outer  vessel.  The  cream  passes  into 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


321 


the  opening  of  a  small  tube  in  the  center  of  the  revolving  vessel, 
and  is  carried  off  in  a  constant  stream  to  an  outside  receptacle. 

The  centrifugal  separator  ordinarily  should  be  able  to  remove 
about  98  per  cent  of  the  butter  fat  in  the  form  of  cream. 

After  the  cream  is  separated  it  is  allowed  to  ripen  before  being 
churned,  because  butter  made  from  fresh  cream  seems  insipid  and 
lacking  in  flavor.  Under  a  tem- 
perature of  60°  tjiis  ripening  will 
take  place  within  twenty-four 
hours  or  less  time.  This  change  is 
effected  through  certain  bacteria, 
Besides  these  beneficial  bacteria 
there  are  often  present  many 
harmful  forms  of  bacteria  in  milk 
when  it  is  not  properly  cared  for. 

In  order  to  check  the  growth  of 
harmful  bacteria,  extreme  cleanli- 
ness should  be  practiced,  and  the 
milk  should  be  cooled  as  rapidly 
as  possible  to  a  temperature  of  50° 
or  less.  Sometimes  it  is  found 
best  to  pasteurize  the  milk.  This 
consists  in  heating  the  milk  to  a 
temperature  of  160°  F.  for  fifteen 
minutes  and  then  rapidly  cooling 
it  to  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  This 
destroys  many  of  the  bacteria  — 
especially  those  that  are  harmful. 

After  the  proper  ripening  of  the  cream,  it  should  be  churned 
as  soon  as  possible.  The  proper  temperature  of  the  cream  for 
churning  is  50°  to  54°  F.  in  the  summer  and  from  54°  to  58°  F.  in 
the  winter.  When  the  butter  granules  have  reached  the  size  of 
large  grains  of  wheat,  the  churning  should  be  stopped.  Then  the 
butter  should  be  washed,  salted,  thoroughly  worked,  molded,  and 
packed  for  market. 

In  judging  butter  and  estimating  its  excellence  the  student 
should  consider  the  following  points:  flavor,  texture,  color,  the 
salting,  and  lastly  the  molding  and  packing.  If  possible,  send  to 

PRAC.  AGRICUL.  —  21 


Centrifugal  separator. 


322 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


the  Director  of  the  Experiment  Station  in  your  State  and  obtain 
from  him  the  score  card  used  for  judging  butter  in  the  Dairy 
Department.  Then  secure  samples  of  butter  and  grade  them  in 
accordance  with  the  score  card  used  in  your  State. 

HOGS 

Our  common  hogs  are  the  descendants  of  the  wild  hogs  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa  which  have  been  improved  under  the  influence  of 
proper  selection  and  careful  handling.  They  bring  in  as  a  rule 
a  better  profit  on  feeding  than  any  other  class  of  farm  animals, 
while  the  amount  required  to  be  invested  is  smaller  than  that  for 
most  animals. 

The  principal  breeds  are  as  follows: 

1.   Small  Breeds:    2.   Medium  Breeds. 

Berkshires 
Poland  China 
Duroc  Jersey 
Cheshire 


Victoria 

Suffolk 

Essex 

Small  Yorkshire 


3.    Large  Breeds: 
Chester  White 
Improved 

Yorkshire 
Tamworth 


Small  Breeds.  —  The  Victoria  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  combined 
blood  of  the  Poland  China,  Berkshire,  Chester  White,  and  Suffolk 

under  the  influence 
of  careful  selection. 
The  head  is  moder- 
ately broad,  ear  of 
medium  size,  body 
broad  and  deep, 
while  the  shoulders 
and  hams  carry  a 
considerable  thick- 
ness. 

The  American 
Suffolk  Hog  is  of 
white  color  and  is  probably  a  descendant  of  the  small  Yorkshire. 
It  has  a  small  head,  dished  face,  small  snout,  fine  jowl,  short- 
thin  ears,  short  thick  neck,  wide  and  deep  chest,  ribs  .well  arched, 
broad  level  back,  and  well-filled  flanks.  It  is  found  mainly  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley. 


Texas  razor  back  hog. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


323 


The  Essex  is  a  native  of  Essex  County,  England,  and  was  brought 
to  America  about  1820.  It  is  of  a  black  color  and  has  a  short 
head,  slightly  dished  face,  broad  forehead,  small  fine  ears,  broad 
jowl,  short  neck,  broad  back,  thickly  fleshed  shoulders,  heavy  set 
hams,  and  short  legs.  The  Essex  is  a  good  feeder  and  its  meat 
is  of  a  fine  flavor.  It  is  found  in  Texas,  Nebraska,  and  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley. 

The  Small  Yorkshire  was  developed  in  Yorkshire,  England,  and  is 
known  there  as  the  small  white,  but  its  exact  ancestry  is  not  known. 
It  was  first  brought  to  the  United  States  about  1860.  Some  of  its 
characteristic  features  are  fineness  of  bone,  quantity  and  quality 
of  hair,  shortness  of  snout,  and  aptitude  for  fattening.  Another 
peculiarity  is  the  occurrence  occasionally  of  black  spots  on  the  skin. 
This  breed  is  found  in  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  Middle  West.  They  fatten  readily  on  grass,  but  do  not 
make  large  gains. 

Medium  Breeds.  —  The  Berkshire  is  a  native  of  England  and  is 
the  outgrowth  of  crosses  on  the  native  stock  with  Chinese,  Siamese, 
and  Neapolitan  stock.  They  mature  early,  and  are  easy  to  fatten. 
They  have  a  gracefully  dished  face,  thin  erect  ears,  the  jowl 
moderately  full,  shoulders  of  medium  thickness,  and  hams  some- 
what deep  and  thick.  They  are  generally  black  with  a  white 
streak  in  the  face, 
four  white  feet  and 
more  or  less  of 
white  on  the  tail, 
making  up  the  six 
white  points  re- 
quired for  recogni- 
tion of  the  breed. 
Some  of  the  pure- 
bred Berkshires 
command  fancy 
prices  ranging 
from  $500  to  $3000. 

The      Poland 

China  Hog  originated  in  Butler  and  Warren  counties  in  south- 
western Ohio.     The  head  is  of  medium  length  and  the  face 


Poland  China  hog. 


324 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


is  straight.  The  cheeks  are  round  and  the  ears  are  fine  and 
break  over  at  the  upper  third  and  form  a  droop,  the  neck  is 
short  and  thick,  the  shoulders  stand  up  well,  the  back  has  a  long 
gradual  arch,  while  the  hind  quarters  are  characterized  with  a 

heavy  growth  of 
flesh.  This  breed 
is  a  decided  black, 
but  has  white  feet, 
white  tail,  and 
white  face.  These 
hogs  are  raised 
widely  throughout 
the  corn-growing 
States  and  com- 
mand high  prices 

Duroc  Jersey  hog.  Qn  the  market 

The  Duroc  Jersey.  —  This  breed  of  hogs  is  the  result  of  the 
amalgamation  of  the  Jersey  red  and  the  Duroc  red  and  possibly  of 
the  old  Sandy,  all  colored  Berkshires.  The  Duroc  Jerseys  are 
of  light  or  dark  red  color,  and  they  have  medium  or  small  head, 
face  either  straight  or  slightly  dished,  drooping  ears,  great  depth 
of  body,  short  legs, 
and  heavy  thick 
shoulders  and 
hams.  They  are 
good  grazers  and 
feeders,  but  seem 
to  thrive  the  best 
in  the  corn-growing 
belt;  they  also  give 
satisfactory  results 
in  the  South. 

The  Cheshire  is  a 
native  of  Jefferson 
County,  New  York, 
and  its  origin  dates  back  to  about  1855.  It  has  a  face  only  slightly 
dished,  and  small  fine  ears  that  point  forward,  a  wide  and  slightly 
arched  back,  and  thick  shoulders  and  hams.  The  flesh  is  fine- 


Chester  white  hog. 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


325 


grained  and  is  juicy  and  tender.  In  color  both  skin  and  hair 
are  white.  Experiments  show  that  they  gain  more  rapidly  than 
other  breeds  of  hogs,  but  they  require  much  more  food. 

Large  Breeds.  —  The  Chester  White  Hogs  take  their  name  from 
Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  where  they  first  became  prominent. 
Their  color  is  pure  white,  and  the  head  is  short  and  slightly  dished. 
The  Chester  whites  have  large  compact  bodies,  with  thick,  heavy, 
drooping  ears.  They  often  weigh  one  thousand  pounds  or  more. 
They  rank  high  as  feeders  and  command  good  prices. 

Improved  Yorkshire.  — The  modernizing  of  the  old  large  York- 
shire began  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
improved  Yorkshire  has  a  medium  long  head  with  but  little  up- 
ward curve,  heavy  drooping  ears,  good-sized  hams,  white  hair, 
and  pink  skin. 
They  are  generally 
very  large  and 
weights  of  twelve 
hundred  are  not 
uncommon. 

The  Tamworths. 
-This  breed  came 
originally  from  the 
counties  of  Staf- 
ford ,  Warwick ,  Lei- 
cester, and  North-  Tamworth  hog. 

ampton  in  England,  and  it  dates  back  to  the  time  of  Sir  Robert 
Peel  in  1812.  Their  introduction  into  the  United  States  dates 
from  1882,  when  they  were  imported  by  Mr.  Thomas  Bennett  of 
Rossville,  Illinois.  They  have  golden  red  hair  and  are  extremely 
long  in  head,  legs,  and  body.  Their  ears  are  large  and  erect,  their 
backs  narrow  and  long,  and  their  sides  long  and  deep.  They  are 
fairly  good  feeders  and  rank  high  as  grazing  hogs  or  rustlers. 
They  are  highly  esteemed  for  bacon. 

SHEEP 

Sheep  were  probably  domesticated  at  a  very  early  period  in  the 
history  of  man.  They  are  found  in  practically  every  part  of  the 
world,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Australia  sheep 


326 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


raising  is  a  very  important  industry.  They  are  raised  for  their 
wool  and  mutton  in  this  country,  and  also  in  Europe,  Australia, 
and  Asia. 

They  are  usually  classified  according  to  the  fineness  of  their  wool 
as  follows: 


1.  Fine-wooled 

Breeds : 

American  Merino 
Delaine  Merino 
Rambouillets 


2.  Medium-wooled  3.  Long-wooled 

Breeds :  Breeds  : 

Southdown  Leicester 

Shropshire  Lincoln 

Horned  Dorset  Cotswold 

Hampshire  Down 
Oxford  Down 
Cheviot 

Fine-wooled  Breeds.  —  The  American  Merino  is  a  descendant 
of  the  Spanish  merino.  The  first  merinos  are  said  to  have  been 
brought  to  the  United  States,  in  1793,  by  William  Foster  of 
Boston,  Massachusetts. 

It  has  large  wrinkles  on  its  neck  and  body  and  has  a  very  fine 
wool  of  a  lustrous  white  color.  It  is  not  valued  highly  as  mutton. 

The  Delaine  is 
a  development  of 
the  merinos.  De- 
laines are  some- 
what larger  and 
their  bodies  are 
freer  from  wrin- 
kles, and  they  usu- 
ally have  polled 
heads,  but  if  horns 
are  present  they 
are  small. 

The  Rambouillets 
come  from  the 
northern  part  of 
France,  not  far 
from  Paris,  and  they  are  sometimes  called  the  French  merinos. 
They  are  the  descendants  of  Spanish  merinos  taken  by  M.  Gilbert 


French  merino. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


327 


from  Spain  to  France  in  1786.  The  French  merinos  were  brought 
to  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in  1840.  They  have  large  bodies  and 
the  wool  is  very 
compact  and  very 
long,  often  being 
inches 
They 


Southdown. 


over    three 

in    length. 

mature   early    and 

are  very  hardy. 
The    medium- 

wooled    breeds    are 

sometimes    classed 

as    mutton   sheep, 

since  their  flesh  is 

prized  more  highly 

than  their  wool. 
The  Southdowns 

are  natives  of  Sus- 
sex County,  England.     They  are  rather  small,  have  short  wool, 

and  are  hornless.  v  They  are  good  feeders  and  mature  early,  and 

their  flesh  is  of  fine 
flavor.  Their  use  in 
America  datesback 
to  colonial  times. 

The  Shropshires 
came  originally 
from  Staffordshire 
and  Shropshire, 
England,  and  were 
first  brought  to  the 
United  States  by 
Samuel  Sutton  of 
Maryland,  in  1860. 
They  are  larger 

Shropshire.  than       the      South- 

downs     and     they 

have  faces,  ears,  and  legs  that  are  generally  of  a  dark  brown  color. 
They  rank  well  as  wool  producers  and  general-purpose  sheep. 


328 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


The  Horned  Dorsets  are  natives  of  Somerset,  Wilts,  and  Dor- 
set counties  in  England,  but  their  introduction  in  this  country 

dates  back  only  to 
1885.  They  are 
larger  than  the 
Southdowns,  and 
both  the  males  and 
females  have  curv- 
ing horns.  Their 
faces,  legs,  and 
hoofs  are  white. 
Another  one  of  their 
striking  features  is 
a  short  foretop  of 
wool. 

The     Hampshire 
Downs.  — The  na- 

Hampshire  Down.  tive     home    of     the 

Hampshire  Downs  is  in  Hampshire  County,  England,  and  they 
were  brought  to  New  York  in  1855  by  Thomas  Messenger. 
They  are  larger  and 
coarser  than  the 
Shropshires.  The 
head  is  of  a  dark 
brown  color,  while 
the  lips  and  nostrils 
are  black,  and  the 
ears  are  of  a  dark 
mouse  color.  They 
also  generally  have 
a  pronounced  Ro- 
man nose.  They 
mature  early,  fat- 
ten rapidly,  and  are 
good  grazers. 

The  Oxford  Downs  Oxford  Down- 

are  natives  of  Oxford  County,  England,  and  were  first  brought 
to  Delaware,  in  1846,  by  Clayton  Reybold.     They  resemble  the 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


329 


Shropshire,  but  are  of  a  lighter  brown  and  have  less  wool  on  the 
forehead.  The  Oxford  Downs  are  large  and  heavy  and  are  good 
wool  producers.  They  are  good  feeders  and  are  quite  prolific. 

The  Cheviot.  —  The  home  of  the  Cheviots  is  in  the  hills  in  the 
border  country  between  England  and  Scotland,  and  they  were 
brought  to  the  United  States,  in  1838,  by  Robert  Youngs  of 
Delhi,  New  York.  They  have  polled  heads  covered  with  short, 
fine,  white  hair.  The  lips  and  nostrils  are  black,  or  nearly  so, 
while  the  ears  and  legs  are  white  and  comparatively  free  from 
wool.  The  Cheviot  compares  favorably  with  the  Shropshire  in 
size,  and  it  ranks  high  as  a  mutton  producer.  Its  wool  is  used  for 
making  cheviot  cloth.  The  Cheviot  breed  is  very  hardy  and  very 
prolific. 

Long-wooled  Breeds.  —  The  Leicester  sheep  are  natives  of  Leices- 
ter County,  Eng- 
land, and  their  in- 
troduction into  this 
country  dates  back 
as  early  as  1800. 
They  are  somewhat 
large,  and  have  long 
wool  of  white  color. 
The  head  is  covered 
with  soft,  white 
hair,  the  face  is  of 
medium  length,  the 
neck  is  short,  the 
legs  are  long,  and 
the  breast  is  quite 
prominent.  The 
Leicesters  produce 

an  excellent  grade  of  long  wool,  but  they  rank  low  as  mutton 
producers. 

The  Lincoln  Breed.  —The  home  of  the  Lincoln  breed  is  in 
Lincoln  County,  England,  and  the  introduction  of  these  sheep 
into  the  United  States  took  place  over  a  century  ago.  The 
Lincoln  sheep  are  white,  and  they  have  large  hornless  heads, 
large  broad  ears,  broad  level  back,  and  firm  flesh.  They  have 


Lincoln. 


330  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

long  and  somewhat  coarse  wool,  out  as  mutton  producers  they 
do  not  rank  high. 

The  Cotswolds  are  natives  of  the  Cotswold  Hills  of  Gloucester 
County,  England,  and  they  were  brought  to  Albany,  New  York, 
in  1832. 

They  generally  have  polled  white  heads  with  curls  or  locks 
extending  almost  to  their  nostrils.  -Their  fleece  occurs  in  some- 
what large  locks  or  curls.  They  rank  high  as  wool  producers, 
but  are  regarded  as  ordinary  for  mutton  purposes.  They  are 
both  good  feeders  and  grazers. 

Other  long-wooled  breeds  are  the  Kent,  of  Kent  County  and 
the  Romney  Marsh,  in  England,  and  the  Black-faced  Highland 
of  Scotland. 

GOATS 

Large  herds  of  goats  are  not  often  seen  in  the  United  States. 
They  are  distributed  chiefly  in  the  North  Central  States,  and  in 
Maryland,'  Massachusetts,  and  New  York. 

They  may  be  divided  into  the  following  classes  : 

1.  Fleece  Breeds  2.   Milk  Breeds 

The  Angora  The  Maltese 

The  Cashmere  The  Toggenburg 

The  Saanen 
The  Appenzell 
The  Schwarzthal 
The  Langensalzer 
The  Nubian 

The  Fleece  Breeds.  —  The  Angora  is  a  native  of  Angora  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  they  were  first  brought  to  the  United  States  in  1849. 
From  the  fleece  of  the  Angora  goat  is  prepared  the  mohair  cloth 
of  commerce. 

The  Cashmere  goal  is  a  native  of  Cashmere,  Thibet,  and  the 
adjacent  countries.  The  costly  cashmere  shawls  and  other 
genuine  cashmere  goods  are  made  from  the  fleece  of  these  goats. 

The  Milk  Breeds.  —  Among  some  of  the  poorer  classes  of  people 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  goats  are  valued  highly  for  their  milk.  The 
Maltese  goat  is  a  native  of  the  island  of  Malta,  where  there  are 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  331 

no  less  than  thirty  thousand  of  them.  The  Toggenburg  goat 
is  of  a  medium  brown  color  and  is  a  native  of  the  Toggenburg 
Valley  in  Switzerland.  The  white  Saanen  goat,  the  Appenzell 
goat,  and  the  Schwarzthal  goat  are  also  natives  of  Switzerland. 
The  Langensalzers  are  natives  of  Thuringia  and  central  Germany, 
while  the  Nubian  goats  are  found  in  Nubia,  Abyssinia,  Upper 
Egypt,  and  South  Africa. 

POULTRY 

The  ordinary  farm  fowls,  chickens,  turkeys,  ducks,  and  geese, 
are  the  descendants  of  wild  fowls  which  have  been  domesticated 
and  changed  under  the  care  of  man. 

Chickens.  — The  principal  varieties  of  chicken  breeds  are 
as  follows  : 

I.  Meat  Breeds 


1.   Brahma 


Light  Buff 

Dark  0    n    , .        Black 

2.  Cochin  {  .      ,  ., 

Partridge 

White 


3.  Langshan  4.   Cornish  Indian  Game 

II.   Egg  Breeds 
1.   Leghorn  2.   Minorca  3.   Red  Cap  4.   Spanish 

III.    General  Purpose  Breeds 
1.    Plymouth  Rock       2.    Orpington  3.    Wyandotte 

4.  Java  5.   Dominique  6.   Rhode  Island  Red 
7.   Dorking                   8.   Indian  Game 

IV.    Fancy   Breeds 
1.    Bantam        2.   Game        3.    Polish        4.   Sultan 

Care  of  Chickens.  — Arrange  the  chicken  yard  so  that  the  chick- 
ens may  have  plenty  of  sunshine.  Give  them  a  place  where  they 
can  have  plenty  of  dust  to  dust  in  and  straw  to  scratch  in  whenever 
they  feel  so  inclined.  The  chicken  house  should  be  warm,  but  prop- 
erly ventilated.  The  inside  of  the  house  should  be  whitewashed 
frequently,  and  an  occasional  sprinkling  with  coal  oil  will  also 
be  found  advisable.  In  addition  to  whatever  dry  feed  may  be 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


given  chickens,  they  should  have  some  green  food.  Scraps  of  meat 
and  other  articles  from  the  table  will  also  be  found  valuable  for 
chicken  feed.  Also  see  that  your  chick- 
ens have  plenty  of  pure  water. 

Turkeys.  —  Our  modern  turkeys  are 
the  descendants  of  wild  turkeys  which 
have  been  domesticated.  Many  wild 
turkeys  are  still  to  be  found  in  some 
parts  of  the  United  States. 

The  chief  varieties  are  the  Mammoth 
Bronze,  a  large-bodied  bird,  with  flesh 
of  fine  and  superior  flavor  ;  and  the 
White  Holland  Turkeys,  a  hardy  breed 
of  German  origin. 

Ducks  are  usually  found  profitable 
on  the  farm.  The  principal  breeds  are 

Barred  Plymouth  Rock  pullet. 

the  Pekm,   valued  for  its  meat   and 

feathers;  the  Rouen,  a  duck  of  beautiful  plumage,  the  Cayuga,  with 
jet-black  plumage ;  and  the  White  Aylesburg,  of  English  origin. 


Pekin  ducks. 


Silver-penciled  Wyandotte. 


Red  Cochin. 


White  Leghorns. 


White  Plymouth  Rock. 


Buff  Plymouth   Rock. 


334  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 

Geese.  —  Goose  raising  is  very  profitable,  as  the  geese  need 
no  grain  or  dry  food  in  the  summer  when  they  can  have  plenty  of 
grass  to  feed  on.  *  The  most  popular  varieties  are  the  Toulouse 
and  the  Embdens. 

The  Toulouse  came  originally  from  the  City  of  Toulouse  in 
southern  France.  They  are  of  a  uniform  gray  color  and  grow 
to  a  large  size,  many  of  them  weighing  as  high  as  forty  to  fifty 
pounds.  They  require  but  little  feeding  and  live  to  be  thirty 
years  of  age. 

The  Embden  geese  are  about  the  same  size  as  the  Toulouse, 
but  they  are  of  a  pure  white  color.  Their  feathers  are  of  the 
best,  and  they  will  average  at  least  half  a  pound  of  feathers  at  a 
picking. 

Both  Toulouse  and  Embden  geese  will  average  about  four  pick- 
ings a  season.  Geese  are  sometimes  eaten,  but  they  are  valued 
principally  for  their  feathers. 

Guinea  Fowls.  —  Guinea  fowls  are  of  a  somewhat  wild  dispo- 
sition and  thrive  best  when  allowed  a  great  deal  of  range.  They 
are  usually  of  a  beautiful  blue-gray  plumage  and  of  medium  size. 
They  are  very  fond  of  bugs  and  worms  and  destroy  a  great  many 
of  them.  Their  flesh  is  of  a  fine  flavor,  and  their  eggs  are  always 
in  demand  for  culinary  purposes. 

Peafowls.  — These  fowls  are  raised  for  ornamental  purposes 
and  are  not  valued  for  table  purposes.  Their  long  tail  feathers 
are  of  striking  colors  and  are  beautifully  marked.  Sometimes 
these  feathers  are  utilized  for  making  fly  brushes. 

The  Ostrich.  —  Ostriches  are  birds  of  large  size  and  many  of 
them  are  from  six  to  eight  feet  high.  Their  wings  are  of  small  size 
and  are  incapable  of  being  used  for  flight.  Their  legs  are  of 
great  size  and  strength.  Ostriches  are  valued  chiefly  for  the 
fine  plumes  which  they  bear.  These  are  used  for  making  feather 
boas  and  for  trimming  ladies'  hats,  and  for  other  millinery 
purposes. 

On  account  of  their  cost  and  the  difficulty  of  caring  for  them, 
but  few  ostriches  are  raised  in  this  country.  They  are  raised 
principally  in  Arizona  and  California.  A  large  ostrich  farm  is 
maintained  at  Phoenix,  Arizona,  and  another  large  one  at 
Pasadena,  California. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  335 

ANIMALS  VALUED  AS  PETS 

Besides  the  animals  just  described  there  is  another  class  valued 
principally  as  pets  or  companions.  This  list  includes  dogs,  cats, 
squirrels,  rabbits,  guinea  pigs,  song  birds,  etc. 

Dogs.  — These  animals  have  been  the  companions  of  man 
from  the  earliest  times  and  have  always  been  highly  esteemed. 
The  leading  varieties  are  the  shepherd  dog,  the  bull  dog,  the 
mastiff,  the  St.  Bernard,  the  Newfoundland,  the  pointer,  the 
Scotch  collie,  the  English  setter,  the  Irish  setter,  the  retriever, 
the  Italian  greyhound,  the  deerhound,  English  foxhound,  the 
field  spaniel,  the  terriers,  the  Chinese  chow  chow,  the  French 
poodle,  and  others. 

Cats.  — The  domestication  of  the  cat  took  place  at  a  very 
early  period,  and  mention  of  its  first  connection  with  man  is 
found  in  the  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt,  Babylon,  and  Nineveh. 
Among  the  Egyptians,  cats  were  worshiped  as  sacred  animals  and 
they  were  inmates  of  certain  temples. 

The  principal  long-haired  cats  include  the  Angora,  Persian,  Chi- 
nese, and  Indian  families  of  cats.  Other  prominent  breeds  are 
the  Maltese,  the  royal  cat  of  Siam,  the  Manx  cat,  and  the  common 
short-haired  or  western  cat  of  various  shades  and  colors. 

Squirrels.  —  The  common  red  squirrel  and  the  gray  squirrel  if 
captured  while  young  and  reared  by  hand  become  quite  tame 
and  gentle. 

Rabbits.  —  European  rabbits,  of  which  there  are  many  breeds, 
and  Belgian  hares,  are  raised  as  pets  for  children. 

Guinea  Pigs.  — These  animals  are  small  rodents  or  gnawing 
animals,  and  their  native  country  is  Brazil.  They  are  of  various 
colors  and  are  about  the  size  of  a  large  rat,  but  their  bodies  are 
shorter  and  more  blocky. 

BEES 

In  many  parts  of  our  country  bee  keeping  may  be  made  a 
very  profitable  side  line  in  farming.  Especially  is  this  true 
where  there  is  an  abundance  of  honey-yielding  blossoms.  White, 
clover,  Alsike  clover,  sweet  clover,  alfalfa,  Spanish  needle,  bass- 
wood,  raspberry,  sourwood,  white  sage,  aster,  blueberry,  horse 
mint,  wild  pennyroyal,  black  mangrove,  holly,  poplar,  chestnut, 


336 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


magnolia,  buckwheat,  vetch,  catnip,  and  many  other  plants 
of  like  nature  furnish  flowers  which  are  utilized  by  bees  in 
making  honey. 

Breeds.  —  The  principal  breeds  besides  the  common  black  and 
common  brown  bees  are  the  Carniolans,  Caucasians,   Italians, 

Cyprians,      and      the 
Syrians. 

The  black  bees  are 
spiteful  and  less  able 
to  protect  themselves 
against  enemies  than 
other  breeds.  They 
are  also  less  industri- 
ous and  produce  less 
honey. 

The  Carniolans  are 
hardy  and  very  in- 
dustrious. They  were 
brought  to  this  coun- 
try in  1884  from  Car- 
niola,  Austria.  They 

are  quite  prolific  and  breed  well  in  the  coldest  of  climates.  They 
produce  a  great  deal  of  honey  and  their  honeycomb  is  snowy 
white.  They  are  not  spiteful  and  may  be  handled  easily. 

The  Caucasians  were  brought  to  the  United  States  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  bid  fair  to 
become  one  of  our  most  popular  breeds.  They 
are  very  gentle  and  kindly  disposed,  so  that 
they  may  be  handled  with  impunity.  They 
work  industriously  and  produce  a  large  quan- 
tity of  high  grade  honey. 

The  Italian  bees  are  good  workers,  but  they 
are  not  so  easily  managed  as  the  Caucasians 
and  the  Carniolans.  Their  introduction  into  Honeycomb. 

this  country  dates  back  to  1860,  and  since  then  they  have 
gradually  spread  over  a  large  part  of  the  United  States. 

The   Cyprian    bees    are  very  hardy,  vigorous    fighters  against 
enemies,  and  they  produce  a  great  deal  of  honey.     They  are 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS  337 

somewhat  spiteful  when  aroused  and  must  be  handled  with 
care. 

The  Syrians  are  very  much  like  the  Cyprians.  They  are  hardy 
and  vigorous  and  produce  a  great  deal  of  honey. 

The  Bee  Colony.  —  Bees  live  together  in  colonies  and  make 
their  homes  in  hives  prepared  for  them.  These  hives  are  usually 
made  in  two  parts,  the  lower  part  being  designated  as  the  bee 
stand  and  the  upper  part  as  the  cap.  The  stand  has  a  small 
opening  at  the  bottom  sufficiently  large  to  admit  only  a  few 
bees  at  a  time.  At  the  top  of  the  bee  stand  is  another  opening 
of  moderate  size  for  the  admission  of  the  bees  to  the  cap.  Both 
sections  of  the  hive  are  fitted  with  comb  racks  for  the  support 
and  attachment  of  the  honeycomb.  Each  hive  should  be  placed 
on  a  small  platform  and  in  a  sheltered  place  where  it  will  escape 
the  violence  of  the  wind  and  storms.  Wild  bees  use  hollow 
trees  and  crevices  in  rocks  as  places  in  which  to  make  their  homes. 

Their  first  energies  are  devoted  to  the  making  of  comb,  and 
later  this  is  filled  with  honey.  Sometimes  bee  keepers  assist  bees 


Drone.  Worker.  Queen. 

Honey  bees. 

in  this  work  by  providing  them  with  an  artificial  comb  so  that  the 
bees  may  spend  all  their  time  in  making  honey.  Natural  honey- 
comb when  not  removed  from  time  to  time  gradually  grows  dark 
or  yellowish  brown. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  year  each  hive  will  be  found  to  contain 
three  classes  of  individuals:  (1)  the  workers;  (2)  the  drones;  and 
(3)  the  queen.  Each  colony  will  contain  one  full-grown  queen, 
a  few  hundred  drones,  and  from  forty  to  fifty  thousand  workers. 

The  Workers.  —  The  working  bees  are  females  and  are  the 
smallest  in  the  hive.  On  them  falls  all  the  work  incident  to  keeping 
up  the  hive.  They  make  the  comb,  the  honey,  the  beebread,  and 
care  for  the  young  bees  while  in  the  form  of  larvae.  The  bee  cells 

PRAC.  AGRICUL.  —  22 


338  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 

are  of  various  sizes,  and  they  are  somewhat  hexagonal  in  form. 
Some  are  made  for  holding  the  eggs  which  the  queen  lays,  and  some 
for  holding  honey.  In  the  young  bee  cells  there  is  also  placed  the 
beebread,  which  is  a  pasty  mass  made  by  the  workers  from  the 
pollen  gathered  from  flowers.  The  young  bees  hatch  out  and 
remain  in  the  form  of  grubs  or  larvse  for  approximately  three 
weeks,  when  they  change  their  form  and  become  perfect  or  adult 
bees.  About  two  weeks  later  they  take  to  their  wings  and  go  out 
to  the  field  to  begin  their  labors.  On  account  of  their  strenuous 
habits  the  workers  live  only  a  few  months,  but  other  young  bees 
come  on  and  take  their  places.  Each  worker  is  armed  with  a  sting 
which  she  does  not  hesitate  to  use  when  necessary.  Since  the 
workers  are  sterile  they  are  sometimes  erroneously  called  neuters. 

The  Drones.  —  The  drones  are  the  male  bees  of  the  hive  and  are 
somewhat  larger  than  the  workers.  They  gather  no  honey  and 
have  no  sting.  In  the  fall  they  are  driven  out  of  the  hive  by  the 
workers,  when  they  starve  to  death  or  fall  a  prey  to  insect-eating 
animals.  If  they  attempt  to  return  to  the  hive,  the  workers 
sting  them  to  death. 

The  Queen.  — The  queen  is  mother  of  the  colony,  and  there 
is  only  one  to  each  hive.  When  the  workers  desire  to  produce  a 
queen  they  usually  form  a  vertical  cell  and  place  in  it  an  ordinary 
worker  egg  and  feed  the  larva  or  young  bee  on  a  special  kind  of 
food  known  as  royal  jelly.  The  queen  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  other  bees  by  her  long,  slender  body.  A  queen  bee  is  very 
prolific  and  often  lays  as  many  as  four  thousand  eggs  in  a 
single  day. 

Swarming. — As  soon  as  a  new  queen  is  produced,  the  old  queen 
often  leaves  the  hive  and  a  considerable  number  of  bees  accompany 
her.  They  settle  on  a  tree  or  some  other  object  that  may  be 
convenient.  The  limb  on  which  the  swarm  has  gathered  may  be 
sawed  off  and  the  bees  shaken  down  into  a  new  hive.  If  other 
queens  are  produced,  another  swarm  will  follow  the  second  queen 
from  the  hive  as  soon  as  the  third  queen  is  produced.  Finally, 
when  the  hive  has  been  sufficiently  reduced  in  numbers,  the  workers 
after  accepting  a  new  queen  destroy  the  remaining  queen  cells, 
and  the  ruling  queen  seeks  out  the  young  queens  and  destroys  them 
by  stinging  them  to  death.  The  queen  usually  begins  to  lay  her 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  339 

eggs  in  midwinter  or  very  early  in  the  spring,  and  in  consequence 
many  new  bees  come  out  of  their  cells  every  day,  during  the  warm 
season,  and  thus  the  stock  of  the  hive  is  kept  replenished.  The 
queen  lays  her  eggs  in  three  distinct  classes  of  cells,  the  smallest 
cells  producing  the  workers,  and  the  next  larger  horizontal  cells 
producing  the  drones,  and  the  long  vertical  cells  on  the  edge  of  the 
comb  producing  the  queens.  The  kind  of  food  fed  to  each  cell  also 
helps  to  determine  the  kind  of  individual  that  will  be  developed. 

Care  of  Bees. — The  enemies  of  bees  are  toads,  lizards,  and  spiders, 
and  the  hives  must  be  so  constructed  that  the  bees  will  be  protected 
against  their  attacks  as  much  as  possible.  The  kingbird  and 
swallow  probably  attack  and  eat  only  the  drones.  Other  enemies 
that  must  be  guarded  against  are  moths  and  mice.  Mice  may 
be  kept  out  by  lining  the  entrance  with  tin. 

In  taking  honey  from  the  hives  care  should  be  taken  not  to  leave 
any  honey  lying  about  to  attract  robber  bees  or  other  enemies. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  different  classes  of  domestic  animals. 

2.  Discuss  the  origin  of  the  horse. 

3.  Name  the  four  classes  of  horses. 

4.  Discuss  the  breeds  suitable  for  draft  purposes. 

5.  Describe  the  coach  horses. 

6.  Discuss  the  speed  horses. 

7.  What  is  said  of  pony  breeds? 

8.  Discuss  mules. 

9.  Give  a  brief  history  of  the  development  of  domestic  cattle. 

10.  Name  some  of  the  uses  of  cattle. 

11.  Name  and  discuss  the  beef  breeds. 

12.  (a)   Name  and  discuss    the    dairy  breeds.      (6)   Discuss  dairving, 
(c)  Describe  the  separator,  (d)  Discuss  butter  making,  etc. 

13.  Name  the  principal  classes  of  hogs. 

14.  Discuss  the  small  breeds. 

15.  What  is  said  of  the  medium  breeds? 

16.  Discuss  the  large  breeds. 

17.  Name  and  discuss  the  fine-wooled  breeds  of  sheep. 

18.  Discuss  the  medium-wooled  breeds. 

19.  What  is  said  of  the  long-wooled  breeds? 

20.  What  is  said  of  goats  and  their  uses  ? 

21.  Name  (a)  the  meat  breeds  of  chickens,  (6)  the  egg  breeds. 

22.  Name  (a)  the  general  purpose  breeds,  (6)  the  fancy  breeds. 


340  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 

23.  What  is  said  of  turkeys  ? 

24.  Discuss  ducks  and  geese. 

25.  Discuss  (a)  guinea  fowls,  (6)  peafowls. 

26.  Give  a  brief  discussion  of  the  animals  valued  as  pets. 

27.  What  is  said  of  beekeeping  ? 

28.  Describe  (a)  the  Carniolans,  (6)  the  Caucasians. 

29.  Discuss  (a)  the  Italian  bees,  (6)  the  Cyprians,  (c)  the  Syrians. 

30.  Discuss  the  colony  life  of  bees. 

31.  Describe  (a)  the  workers,  (6)  the  drones,  (c)  the  queen. 

32.  Discuss  swarming. 

33.  Discuss  the  care  of  bees. 

REFERENCES 

Domestic  Animals,  R.  L.  Allen. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  Charles  S.  Plumb. 

The  Horse,  Isaac  Phillips  Roberts. 

American  Cattle,  Lewis  F.  Allen. 

The  Wild  Cattle  of  Great  Britain,  Rev.  John  Storer. 

The  Shepherd's  Manual,  Henry  Stewart. 

Information  concerning  the  Milch  Goat,  G.  F.  Thompson. 

A  Manual  of  Angora  Goat  Raising,  G.  F.  Thompson. 

The  Hog  Industry,  George  M.  Rommel. 

Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  51. 

Ducks  and  Geese,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  64. 

Turkeys,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  200. 


XLV.     COUNTRY   LIFE  CONVENIENCES 

A  GREAT  deal  of  attention  has  been  given  to  the  study  of  country 
life  and  its  problems.  Much  thought  has  been  given  to  the  ways 
and  means  of  improving  country  life  and  making  it  more  attractive ; 
and  while  much  has  been  learned  through  the  investigations  and 
the  report  of  the  National  Commission  on  Country  Life  appointed 
by  President  Roosevelt,  only  a  beginning  has  been  made,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  work  still  lies  before  us. 

The  absence  of  the  necessary  farm  and  home  conveniences, 
the  strenuous  life  continually  demanded,  the  general  lack  of  proper 
ideals,  and  the  pioneer  conditions  existing  in  many  communities 
are  responsible  in  a  measure  for  the  general  disposition  of  our 
young  people  to  migrate  from  the  farm  to  the  towns  and  large 
centers  of  population,  where  there  are  greater  opportunities  for 
enjoyment  and  improvement. 

In  attempting  to  overcome  this  evil  and  to  better  country  life 
and  its  social  conditions  our  energies  should  be  directed  to  the 
establishment  of:  (1)  better  homes  with  modern  conveniences; 
(2)  consolidated  rural  schools;  (3)  community  improvement  clubs; 
(4)  rural  mail  routes;  (5)  parcels  post;  (6)  postal  savings  banks; 
(7)  rural  telephones;  (8)  interurban  car  lines;  (9)  United  States 
Weather  Service;  (10)  local  and  county  institutes. 

Better  Homes.  —  The  drudgery  of  housekeeping  will  be  consider- 
ably lightened  if  the  kitchen  is  supplied  with  a  good  cooking  range 
and  running  water.  The  rinse  water  from  the  kitchen  sink  should 
be  conducted  through  a  long  drainpipe  so  that  it  will  be  emptied 
at  some  distance  from  the  house.  Every  precaution  should  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  water  in  the  well  or  the  cistern  from  being 
contaminated  by  drainage  from  surface  water  and  other  sources 
of  impurities.  All  rain  water  before  being  used  should  be  passed 
through  a  good  charcoal  filter.  As  an  additional  precaution  it 
will  be  found  advisable  to  have  a  porous  brick  partition  or  wall 
extending  through  the  center  of  the  cistern  and  arranged  so  that 
the  water  will  filter  through  it  before  being  used. 

341 


342 


COUNTRY   LIFE   CONVENIENCES 


Consolidated  Rural  Schools.  —  One  of  the  greatest  needs  is  for 
better  schools.  In  many  States  the  mistake  has  been  made  of 
creating  too  many  small  school  districts  so  that  only  a  short  term* 
of  school  is  possible.  A  remedy  for  such  a  condition  lies  in  con- 
solidation of  two  or  more  of  such  districts,  and  maintaining  a 
graded  school  at  some  convenient  central  point  in  the  consolidated 
district,  and  providing  transportation  for  the  pupils  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  district.  This  plan  relieves  the  children  from  the 
necessity  of  trudging  through  the  snow  and  mud.  Special  wagons 
are  now  made  for  this  purpose  having  curtains,  lap  robes,  and 


A  modern  country  schoolhouse- 

everything  else  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the  children  in  cold 
weather.  In  some  States  township  graded  schools  are  maintained 
and  have  been  found  very  satisfactory.  Occasionally  small  pri- 
mary schools  are  maintained  in  some  parts  of  the  consolidated 
district  for  the  benefit  of  the  very  small  children. 

Not  only  should  the  course  of  instruction  given  be  carefully 
graded,  but  it  should  be  especially  arranged  with  reference  to  the 
needs  of  country  life.  According  to  Superintendent  O.  J.  Kern  of 
Winnebago  County,  Illinois,  the  consolidated  country  school  offers 
the  following  advantages  over  the  average  country  school: 


COUNTRY  LIFE  CONVENIENCES 


343 


"  1.  There  will  result  the  inspiration  and  interest  that  always 
come  from  numbers. 

"  2.  Stronger  classes  will  be  thus  formed,  giving  the  teacher 
more  time  for  the  recitation  and  for  the  necessary  instruction. 

"  3.  There  will  be  better  trained  teachers  for  the  country  chil- 
dren, and  these  teachers  will  command  and  receive  better  salaries. 

"  4.  There  will  result  greater  economy  in  school  buildings  and 
equipment. 

"5.  The  school  year  of  the  country  child  will  be  lengthened 
and  high  school  privileges  may  be  afforded  him. 

"  6.  Such  a  school  will  afford  time  and  opportunity  for  system- 
atic instruction  in  the  elementary  principles  of  agriculture  and 
domestic  science  throughout  the  grades. 

"  7.   Consolidation  will  help  to  bring  better  roads." 


Class  in  agriculture,  Weatherford,  Okla. 

The  first  State  to  take  a  stand  in  favor  of  consolidated  school 
districts  was  Massachusetts  in  1869,  and  since  then  the  following 
states  have  also  made  provisions  for  consolidation  of  country 
schools:  Connecticut,  California,  Florida,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Kansas/  Maine,  Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York, 


344  COUNTRY   LIFE   CONVENIENCES 

North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,    Pennsylvania,    Rhode  Island, 
South  Dakota,  Vermont,  and  Wisconsin. 

Community  Improvement  Clubs.  —  The  progressive  people  of 
every  community  should  organize  a  club  to  sustain  the  same 
business  relationship  to  the  community  as  exists  between  a  city 
and  its  commercial  club.  The  community  improvement  club 
should  encourage  the  establishment  of  good  schools  and  good 
school  environments,  and  should  also  furnish  for  the  community 


Class  in  agriculture,  Weatherford,  Okla.,   destroying  infected  branches. 

lectures,  entertainments,  and  instructive  amusements.  The  build- 
ing of  good  roads,  the  establishment  of  churches,  libraries,  reading 
rooms,  and  many  other  things  of  like  nature  that  are  necessary 
for  the  general  welfare  of  the  community,  should  receive  the  atten- 
tion of  the  club.  Such  an  organization  when  properly  managed 
can  be  made  a  power  for  good  in  any  community. 

Rural  Mail  Routes.  —  Formerly  the  farmer  had  to  go  to  town 
or  to  some  village  in  order  to  get  his  mail,  and  generally  this 
necessitated  a  trip  of  several  miles  and  meant  a  considerable 
loss  of  time.  Under  such  conditions  it  was  impossible  to  secure 


COUNTRY   LIFE   CONVENIENCES 


345 


daily  newspapers,  and  but  few  letters  were  written.  To  remedy  this 
situation  the  first  step  was  taken  by  the  establishment  of  the  first 
rural  free  delivery  route  at  Charleston,  West  Va.,  in  1896.  This 
was  undertaken  as  an  experiment,  but  such  a  generous  response 
was  given  it  by  the  people  that  the  postal  authorities  decided 
to  make  it  a  permanent  feature  of  the  postal  service.  In  1897 
there  were  .83  carriers  maintained  at  an  approximate  expense  of 
$15,000,  while  in  1908  there  were  39,339  carriers,  necessitating  an 


Class  in  corn  judging,  Weatherford,  Okla. 

expense  of  about  $35,573,000.  Rural  delivery  is  now  established 
on  about  1,000,000  miles  of  roads  throughout  the  country  and  has 
a  patronage  of  nearly  20,000,000  people. 

Rural  mail  service  has  done  much  to  improve  conditions  in  the 
country,  and  the  possibilities  of  the  good  it  may  accomplish  in  the 
future  are  vast. 

When  the  people  of  any  locality  desire  to  have  a  rural  route 
established,  the  heads  of  families  living  along  the  line  of  the  pro- 
posed route  sign  a  petition  which  is  filed  with  the  Fourth  Assistant 
Postmaster-general.  An  inspector  is  then  sent  out  to  look  over 


346  COUNTRY  LIFE  CONVENIENCES 

the  proposed  route;  and  if  the  conditions  are  favorable,  an  order  is 
finally  issued  for  its  establishment.  The  regulations  of  the  Post- 
office  Department  require  that  the  roads  be  in  good  condition  and 
that  there  shall  be  a  possible  patronage  of  one  hundred  families 
for  every  twenty-four  miles  of  the  route.  The  postmaster  at  the 
distributing  office  is  also  required  to  certify  that  not  less  than 
three  fourths  of  the  possible  patrons  have  provided  the  form  of 
mail  boxes  approved  by  the  Post-office  Department. 

The  Parcels  Post.  —  For  some  time  the  postal  authorities  have 
been  urging  the  establishment  of  a  limited  parcels  post  to  be  con- 
fined entirely  to  rural  delivery  routes.  To  protect  the  small  dealers 
it  is  proposed  that  no  merchant  or  dealer  not  a  bona  fide  resident 
of  the  town  in  which  the  distributing  post  office  is  located  or  on 
the  rural  route  shall  be  permitted  to  have  goods  delivered  at  the 
proposed  special  rate,  and  packages  shall  not  be  accepted  from 
any  person  acting  as  agent  for  a  concern  located  outside  of  the 
delivery  limits  of  the  rural  routes.  Postmaster-general  Meyer,  in 
speaking  of  the  proposed  service,  says:  "  The  special  local  parcels 
service  will  enable  the  farmers  to  have  small  parcels  delivered  at 
their  gates,  to  live  better,  and  to  obtain  easily  the  necessaries  of 
life.  The  increased  consumption  will  in  turn  increase  the  business 
of  the  local  merchant,  and  benefit  the  jobber  by  the  additional 
orders  transmitted  through  the  commercial  traveler." 

In  all  countries  where  a  parcels  post  service  has  been  in  operation 
it  has  been  found  very  satisfactory  and  popular,  besides  being  a 
source  of  large  revenue  to  the  Post-office  Department. 

Postal  Savings  Banks.  —  In  1908  the  United  States  Comptroller 
of  the  Currency  reported  that  there  were  more  than  three  and  a 
half  billion  of  dollars  on  deposit  in  the  various  private  savings 
banks  of  the  United  States.  For  the  same  period  it  was  estimated 
that  there  were  fully  half  a  billion  of  dollars  not  placed  in  any 
bank,  due  to  a  want  of  opportunity  or  lack  of  confidence.  In  all, 
then,  we  have  about  four  billion  of  dollars  that  might  be  placed  in 
postal  savings  banks  if  such  institutions  should  be  organized. 

One  of  the  plans  proposed  is  that  the  national  banks  are  to  pay 
not  less  than  2\  per  cent  for  the  deposits,  the  government  in 
turn  to  pay  the  depositors  2  per  cent,  retaining  one  fourth  of  I 
per  cent  in  order  that  the  system  may  be  self-sustaining. 


COUNTRY   LIFE  CONVENIENCES  347 

In  speaking  of  the  desirability  of  postal  savings  banks  Postmas- 
ter-general Meyer  says:  '"  Postal  savings  banks  would  foster  thrift 
and  increase  the  habit  of  saving  in  many  States  and  localities 
where  opportunities  for  depositing  savings  do  not  now  exist,  and 
would  in  the  end  serve  as  feeders  to  the  regular  stock  and  mutual 
savings  banks,  where  greater  returns  would  be  received.  Thus 
they  would  be  a  real  benefit  not  only  to  the  people,  but  also  to  the 
existing  financial  institutions.  Practically  all  the  leading  nations, 
with  the  exception  of  the  United  States,  have  postal  savings 
banks  in  successful  operation.  No  one  can  justly  say  they  are 
not  needed  in  the  United  States,  with  its  vast  sections  unequipped 
with  facilities  for  the  deposit  of  savings." 

Rural  Telephones.  —  The  greatest  boon  of  recent  years  to  the 
farmer  and  to  the  rural  districts  has  been  the  rural  telephone.  No 
longer  is  it  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  spend  several  days  and 
travel  several  miles  to  secure  help  that  he  may  need  when  he  is 
ready  to  harvest  or  thrash  his  grain,  since  all  these  matters  now 
may  be  arranged  in  a  few  minutes  by  the  use  of  the  telephone.  The 
doctor  can  be  called  without  the  necessity  of  a  long  trip,  and  in 
cases  of  serious  accident  many  valuable  lives  may  be  saved  that 
otherwise  would  not  be  possible.  The  long  distance  telephone 
enables  the  farmer  to  call  up  the  supply  house  or  factory  and  secure 
small  supplies  or  "repairs  without  loss  of  time.  When  the  self- 
binder  or  the  thrasher  breaks  down,  the  -loss  of  a  few  days'  time 
may  mean  the  loss  of  much  valuable  grain,  especially  when  the 
weather  is  unsettled. 

On  many  rural  telephone  lines  the  weather  reports  are  sent  out 
at  noon  and  market  reports  are  sent  out  at  six  o'clock  to  all  those 
who  care  to  receive  them. 

Through  the  use  of  the  rural  lines  farmers'  wives  no  longer  feel 
the  effect  of  isolation  when  they  live  long  distances  apart,  since 
they  can  now  chat  with  each  other  over  the  telephone  and  learn 
the  latest  items  of  news.  It  also  enables  them  to  arrange  for  social 
gatherings. 

The  Interurban  Car. —  Thus  far  the  steam  railroads  have  offered 
no  special  advantages  to  the  farmers  because  the  trains  are  not 
frequent  enough  and  generally  they  are  too  far  away.  But  the 
interurban  trolley  car  has  been  found  a  very  satisfactory  and 


348 


COUNTRY  LIFE  CONVENIENCES 


convenient  mode  of  transportation  for  rural  residents  who  wish 
to  spend  a  few  hours  in  the  city  and  return  the  same  day  or 
night.  It  also  affords  a  chance  for  the  rapid  delivery  of  express 
and  light  packages  of  freight.  Likewise  it  can  be  used  to  good 
advantage  for  the  rapid  delivery  of  mail  between  the  villages 
and  towns  along  the  route  of  the  interurban  trolley  line. 

By  means  of  the  telephone  the  farmer  can  order  repairs  for 
broken  machinery  or  other  necessary  articles  and  have  them 
delivered  frequently  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours.  If  there  is  some 
lecture  or  entertainment  in  the  city  which  he  and  his  family  wish 
to  attend,  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  telephone  for  the  tickets  a  day 
or  two  in  advance  without  the  necessity  of  having  to  make  a  trip  for 
that  purpose.  Then  through  the  services  of  the  interurban  trolley 
line  it  is  possible  for  him  and  his  family  to  visit  the  city  in  the  after- 
noon, attend  an  entertainment  in  the  evening,  and  return  home 
the  same  night.  Interurban  car  lines  have  generally  been  success- 
ful wherever  tried,  and  farmers  have  always  accorded  them  a 
liberal  patronage  from  the  very  start. 

The  United  States  Weather  Service.  —  Provision  for  daily 
weather  reports  was  first  made  in  1870  in  connection  with  the 

KEY  TO  COLORS ->[] WHITE      gJBLUE       (BLACK 


Weather  service  flags. 

signal  service  of  the  army;  but  about  1890  this  feature  was  made 
a  part  of  the  work  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  forecasts,  which  are  prepared  daily  at  the  central  office  in 
Washington,  D.C.,  and  certain  designated  stations,  are  telegraphed 
to  all  stations  of  the  Weather  Bureau,  railway  officials,  postmas- 
ters, and  voluntary  observers  generally  in  time  to  be  received 
between  ten  o'clock  and  noon  of  each  day;  These  reports  are 
sent  out  by  means  of  rural  telephones,  by  bulletins  transmitted  by 
rural  mail  service,  by  means  of  signal  flags  of  certain  designs  and 


COUNTRY   LIFE  CONVENIENCES 


349 


colors,  and  by  steam  whistles,  blown  sufficiently  strong  to  be  heard 
some  distance  away.  The  flags  used  for  this  purpose  are  as  follows : 

No.  1.    White  flag  indicates  clear  and  fair  weather. 

No.  2.    Blue  flag  signifies  rain  or  snow. 

No.  3.    White  and  blue  flag  indicate  local  rain  or  snow- 

No.  4.    Black  triangular  flag  is  a  temperature  signal. 

No.  5.  White  with  black  square  in  the  center  indicates  that  a 
cold  wave  is  expected. 

When  No.  4  is  placed  above  Nos.  1,  2,  or  3,  warmer  weather 
is  expected;  when  placed  below  these  signals,  colder  weather  is 
expected;  and  when  not  displayed,  stationary  temperature  is 
anticipated. 

Whistle  Signals.  —  The  whistle  signals  are  as  follows: 

Warning  blast  blown. from  fifteen  to  twenty  seconds  to  attract 
attention. 

One  long  blast  for  fair  weather. 

Two  long  blasts  for  rain  or  snow. 

Three  long  blasts  for  local  rain  or  snow. 

One  short  blast  for  lower  temperature. 

Two  short  blasts  for  higher  temperature. 

Three  short  blasts  for  a  cold  wave. 

The  long  blasts  are  blown  from  four  to  six  seconds,  while  the 
short  blasts  are  blown  from  one  to  three  seconds. 

Wind  and  Storm  Signals.  —  A  red  flag  with  a  black  center  fore- 
casts a  storm  of  great  force  and  violence.  Two  such  flags  displayed 


KEY  TO  COLORS 


BLACK 


Wind  and  storm  signals. 

one  above  the  other  indicate  a  tropical  hurricane  or  a  very  severe, 
dangerous  storm.  A  red  pennant  signifies  that  easterly  winds  are 
expected,  while  a  white  pennant  indicates  westerly  winds.  When 


350 


COUNTRY  LIFE   CONVENIENCES 


either  of  these  pennants  is  placed  above  other  flags,  it  signifies 
that  the  wind  will  likely  blow  from  the  northern  quadrants;  but 
when  placed  below,  the  wind  is  expected  to  come  from  the  south- 
ern quadrants. 

Local  and  County  Institutes. —  Institute  lectures  for  farmers 
were  inaugurated  by  the  New  York  Agricultural  Society  as  early 
as  1842,  and  ten  years  later  Massachusetts  took  the  initial  steps 


Class  in  home  economics,  Mills  College. 

looking  to  the  establishment  of  farmers'  institutes.  Since  then 
the  idea  has  been  thoroughly  worked  out  and  the  movement  has 
extended  to  every  State. 

According  to  Professor  Bailey:  "The  function  of  the  institute  is 
to  educate  people  on  their  own  ground.  It  is  a  phase  of  extension 
work  that  carries  education  directly  to  the  localities  in  which  the 
people  live.  It  deals  less  with  individual  men  on  their  farms  than 
with  small  communities  or  groups  of  men;  it  therefore  has  the 
opportunity  to  exert  great  influence  in  developing  the  social  life  of 
rural  neighborhoods.  Institute  education  should  stimulate  initia- 
tive and  develop  incentive  in  the  locality  and  set  forth  the  best 
community  ideals." 


COUNTRY  LIFE  CONVENIENCES 


351 


The  work  of  the  institute  may  be  accomplished  (1)  through  pop- 
ular lectures  delivered  by  instructors  from  the  Agricultural  and 
Mechanical  College  in  each  State  or  by  special  agricultural  experts 
sent  out  by  the  national  government;  (2)  by  means  of  object  teach- 
ing and  practical  demonstrations;  (3)  by  stationing  special  expert 
teachers  in  certain  localities;  (4)  by  offering  short  courses  of  in- 
struction from  two  to 
four  weeks  in  length 
at  some  central  or  con- 
venient point  on  agri- 
cultural topics;  (5)  by 
holding  a  general  State 
meeting  once  a  year  at 
the  capital  of  the  State 
or  at  the  seat  of  the 
State  Agricultural  and 
Mechanical  College. 

The  institute  work 
is  generally  placed 
under  the  direction 
and  control  of  the 
State  Board  of  Agri- 
culture or  the  Agricul- 
tural and  Mechanical 
College  in  each  State. 
In  some  cases  a  special 
organizer  or  conductor 
of  farmers'  institutes 

i<3     pmnlnvprl      V»v     fV»a        Dinner  table,  set  by  class  in  household  economics,  New 

Mexico  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College. 

State,  whose   duty   it 

is  to  lecture  to  the  farmers  and  organize  district  and  county 
institutes.  After  the  work  is  organized  the  cooperation  of  the 
county  superintendent  of  schools  and  the  practical  farmers  of 
the  county  should  be  secured.  Whenever  possible,  arrangements 
should  be  made  to  have  lectures  given  by  the  instructors  of 
the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College.  But  the  work  should 
not '  stop  with  the  farmers.  The  wives  of  the  farmers  may  be 
reached  and  made  to  take  an  interest  in  the  institute  move- 


352  COUNTRY   LIFE  CONVENIENCES 

ment  by  the  formation  of  cooking  clubs  and  sewing  clubs.  The 
school  children  can  be  brought  into  line  and  interested  in  agri- 
culture through  the  organization  of  boys'  and  girls'  experiment 
clubs.  Mr.  John  Hamilton,  Farmers'  Institute  Specialist  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  says: 

"  I  now  think  that  the  farmers'  institute  movement  must  take 
hold  of  the  country  boy  and  the  country  girl.  We  have  been  deal- 
ing with  the  fathers  and  mothers  thus  far,  which  was  a  necessity 
until  the  value  of  the  institute  was  demonstrated;  but  we  have 
come  now,  in  my  opinion,  to  a  time  in  which  it  will  be  possible  for 
us,  in  many  States,  to  go  a  step  farther  and  take  hold  of  the  young 
people  who  are  living  on  the  farm." 

There  is  no  better  way  to  reach  the  country  boy  and  country  girl 
than  through  the  organization  of  experiment  or  contest  clubs.  The 
contests  for  the  boys  may  include  work  in  manual  training,  grain 
growing,  gardening  and  stock  raising;  while  tho  work  for  the  girls 
may  include  light  gardening,  raising  of  poultry,  domestic  science, 
and  sewing.  The  interest  in  this  part  of  the  work  can  be  greatly 
increased  by  offering  suitable  prizes  at  the  State  and  county  fairs 
for  the  best  exhibits  made  by  the  members  of  the  respective  con- 
test clubs.  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Oklahoma,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Wis- 
consin, and  several  other  States  have  organized  boys'  and  girls' 
experiment  clubs  and  have  demonstrated  beyond  question  their 
popularity  and  general  worth. 

The  farmers'  institute  movement  in  some  form  has  now  extended 
to  every  State,  and  the  general  interest  in  the  work  is  increasing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  seems  to  be  responsible  for  the  tendency  of  our  young  people 
to  migrate  from  the  farm  to  the  city  ? 

2.  Discuss  the  arrangement  of  the  kitchen  in  a  farm  home. 

3.  Discuss  the  arrangement  of  the  cistern  and  the  water  supply. 

4.  What  means  of  illumination  are  at  the  farmers'  disposal  ? 

5.  What  would  you  recommend  in  the  way  of  furniture  and  home 
furnishings  ? 

6.  Discuss  the  need  of  better  schools  in  the  country. 

7.  Discuss  the  formation  of  consolidated  school  districts  and  graded 
schools. 

8.  Enumerate    the    advantages    consolidated   schools   have   over   the 
average  school. 


COUNTRY  LIFE  CONVENIENCES  353 

9.    What  States  have  taken  the  lead  in  forming  consolidated  school 
districts  ? 

10.  Discuss  community  improvement  clubs. 

11.  When  and  where  was  the  first  rural  mail  route  established? 

12.  What  can  you  say  of  the  growth  of  this  service  ? 

13.  Discuss  the  effect  of  this  service  on  farm  life. 

14.  Explain  the  mode  of  procedure  in  preparing  and  filing  a  petition  for 
this  service. 

15.  Discuss  the  need  of  a  parcels  post. 

16.  What  is  said  of  postal  savings  banks  ? 

17.  Discuss  rural  telephones. 

18.  What  is  said  concerning  the  interurban  car  and  its  service  ? 

19.  Discuss  the  United  States  Weather  Service. 

20.  Give  a  brief  history  of  the  origin  and  development  of  the  farmers' 
institute  movement. 

REFERENCES 

Report  of  the  Commission  on  Country  Life. 
Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  Vol.  I,  Farm  and  Community,  Bailey. 
The  World  Almanac  and  Encyclopedia,  Press  Publishing  Co.,  N.  Y. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Postmaster  General  for  1908. 


PRAC.  AGRICUL.— 23 


APPENDIX 

1.   FEEDING   STANDARDS 


POUNDS  PER  DAY  PER  1000  POUNDS  LIVE  WEIGHT 


ANIMAL 

DRY 

MATTER 

PROTEIN 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

ETHER 
EXTRACT- 
OR FAT 

NUTRITIVE 
RATIO 
1  TO  a; 

1.    Fattening  Cattle 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

First  Period 

30 

2.5 

15.0 

0.5 

1  :  6.5 

Second  Period 

30 

3.0 

14.5 

0.7 

1  :5.4 

Third  Period 

26 

2.7 

15.0 

0.7 

1  :6.2 

2.    Growing  Cattle 

Ago  in               Average  live  weight 
months                       lb.  per  head 

2-3                            150 

22.0 

4.0 

13.8 

2.0 

1  :  4.7 

3-6                            300 

23.4 

3.2 

13.5 

1.0 

1  :5.0 

6-12                         500 

24.0 

2.5 

13.5 

0.6 

1  :6.0 

12-18                         700 

24.0 

2.0 

13.0 

0.4' 

1  :7.0 

18-24                          850 

24.0 

1.6 

12.0 

0.3 

1  :  8.0 

3.   Milch  Cows 

Daily  yield  lb.  of  milk 

11.0 

25 

1.6 

10.0 

0.3 

1     6.7 

16.6 

27 

2.0 

11.0 

0.4 

1     6.0 

27.5 

32 

3.3 

13.0 

0.8 

1     4.5 

4.   Horses 

Light  Work 

20 

1.5 

9.5 

0.4 

1     7.0 

Medium  Work 

24 

2.0 

11.0 

0.6 

1     6.2 

Heavy  Work 

26 

2.5 

13.3 

0.8 

1     6.0 

5.   Sheep  —  Wool  Producing 

Coarse  Wool 

20 

1.2 

10.5 

0.2 

1     9.1 

Fine  Wool 

23 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

1     8.5 

6.   Sheep  —  Fattening 

First  Period 

30 

3.0 

15.0 

0.5 

1     5.4 

Second  Period 

28 

3.5 

14.5 

0.6 

1     4.5 

7.   Swine  —  Fattening 

First  Period 

36 

4.5 

25.0 

0.7 

1     5.9 

Second  Period 

32 

4.0 

24.0 

0.5 

1     6.3 

Third  Period 

25 

2.7 

18.0 

0.4 

1     7.0 

355 


356 


APPENDIX 
2.   COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD   STUFFS 


NAME  OF  FEED 

DRY 

MATTER 

PER  100 
LB. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS 

IN  1000  LB. 

FERTILIZING  CONSTITU- 
ENTS IN  1000  LB. 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ether 
Extracts 

Nitrogen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Concentrates 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib, 

Corn 

89.1 

7.9 

66.7 

4.3 

18.2 

7.0 

4.0 

Wheat 

89.5 

10.2 

69.2 

1.7 

23.6 

7.9 

5.0 

Wheat  Bran 

87.7 

12.3 

37.1 

2.6 

Wheat  Shorts 

88.2 

12.2 

50.0 

3.8 

28.2 

13.5 

5.9 

Oats 

89.0 

9.2 

47.3 

4.2 

20.6 

8.2 

6.2 

Oat  Shorts 

92.3 

12.0 

46.9 

2.8 

17.2 

9.1 

5.3 

Kaffir  Corn 

84.8 

7.8 

57.1 

2.7 

Cotton-seed  Meal 

91.8 

37.2 

16.9 

12.2 

67.9 

28.8 

8.7 

Soy  Beans 

89.2 

29.6 

22.3 

14.4 

53.0 

18.7 

19.0 

Cowpeas 

85.2 

18.3 

54.2 

1.1 

33.3 

Roughage 

Fodder  Corn,  Green 

20.7 

1.0 

11.6 

0.4 

4.1 

1.5 

3.3 

Fodder  Corn,  Field 

57.8 

2.5 

34.6 

1.2 

17.6 

5.4 

8.9 

Corn  Stover,  Field 

59.5 

1.7 

32.4 

0.7 

10.4 

2.9 

14.0 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass 

34.9 

3.0 

19.8 

0.8 

.... 

Timothy 

38.4 

1.2 

19.1 

0.6 

4.8 

2.6 

7.6 

Hay 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass 

78.8 

4.8 

37.3 

2.0 

11.9 

4.0 

15.7 

Red  Top 

91.1 

4.8 

46.9 

1.0 

11.5 

3.6 

10.2 

Soy  Bean 

88.7 

10.8 

38.7 

1.5 

23.2 

6.7 

10.8 

Timothy 

86.8 

2.8 

43.4 

1.4 

12.6 

5.3 

9.0 

Fresh  Legumes 

Alfalfa 

28.2 

3.9 

12.7 

0.5 

7.2 

1.3 

5.6 

Cowpeas 

16.4 

1.8 

8.7 

0.2 

2.7 

1.0 

3.1 

Crimson  Clover 

19.1 

2.4 

9.1 

0.5 

4.3 

1.3 

4.9 

Red  Clover 

29.2 

2.9 

14.8 

0.7 

5.3 

1.3 

4.0 

Soy  Bean 

24.9 

3.2 

11.0 

0.5 

2.9 

1.5 

5.3 

Legume  Hay  and  Straw 

Alfalfa 

91.6 

11.0 

39.6 

1.2 

21.9 

5.1 

16.8 

Cowpeas 

89.3 

10.8 

38.6 

1.1 

19.5 

5.2 

14.7 

Crimson  Clover 

90.4 

10.5 

34.9 

1.2 

20.5 

4.0 

13.1 

Red  Clover 

84.7 

6.8 

35.8 

1.7 

20.7 

3.8 

22.0 

White  Clover 

90.3 

11.5 

42.2 

1.5 

27.5 

5.2 

18.1 

Soy  Bean 

89.9 

2.3 

40.0 

1.0 

17.5 

4.0 

13.2 

Straw 

Oat 

90.8 

1.2 

38.6 

0.8 

6.2 

2.0 

12.4 

Wheat 

90.4 

0.4 

36.3 

0.4 

5.9 

1.2 

5.1 

APPENDIX 


357 


3.   COMPOSITION  OF   FOOD   STUFFS 

BOOTS    AND    TUBERS 


FEEDING  STUFFS 

WATER 

CRUDE 
FAT 

CRUDE 
FIBER 

CRUDE 
PROTEIN 

CRUDE 
ASH 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

Carrots 

88.6 

0.4 

1.3 

.1 

1.0 

7.6 

Mangels 

90.9 

0.2 

0.9 

.4 

1-1 

5.5 

Potatoes,  Irish 

79.1 

0.1 

0.4 

.1 

0.9 

17.4 

Potatoes,  Sweet 

72.4 

0.3 

0.9 

.1 

1.3 

24.0 

Red  Beets 

88.5 

0.1 

0.9 

.5 

1.0 

8.0 

Sugar  Beets 

86.5 

0.1 

0.9 

.8 

0.9 

9.8 

Turnips 

90.5 

0.2 

1.2 

.1 

0.8 

6.2 

Ruta-bagas 

88.6 

0.2 

1.3 

1.2 

1.2 

7.5 

358 


APPENDIX 


4.  DOMESTIC  WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES 

Apothecaries'  Weight.  —  20  grains  =  1  scruple;  3  scruples  =  1  dram;  8 
drams  =  1  ounce;  12  ounces  =  1  pound. 

Avoirdupois  Weight  (short  ton).  —  2 7£|  grains  =  1  dram;  16  drams  =  1 
ounce;  16  ounces  =  1  pound;  25  pounds  =  1  quarter;  4  quarters  =  1  cwt. ; 
20  cwt.  =  1  ton. 

Avoirdupois  Weight  (long  ton).  —  27|£  grains  =  1  dram;  16  drams  =  1 
ounce;  16  ounces  =  1  pound;  112  pounds  =  1  cwt.;  20  cwt.  =  1  ton. 

Troy  Weight.  —  24 grains  =  1  pennyweight;  20  pennyweights  =  1  ounce; 
12  ounces  =  1  pound. 

Circular  Measure.  —  60  seconds  =  1  minute;  60  minutes  =  1  degree;  30 
degrees  =  1  sign;  12  signs  =  1  circle  or  circumference. 

Cubic  Measure.  — 1728  cubic  inches  =  1  cubic  foot;  27  cubic  feet  =  1 
cubic  yard. 

Dry  Measure.  —  2  pints  =  1  quart;  8  quarts  =  1  peck;  4  pecks  =  1  bushel. 

Liquid  Measure.  —  4  gills  =  1  pint;  2  pints  =  1  quart;  4  quarts  =  1  gall  on; 
31£  gallons  =  1  barrel;  2  barrels  =  1  hogshead. 

Long  Measure.  —  12  inches  =  1  foot;  3  feet  =  1  yard;  5£  yards  =  1  rod 
or  pole;  40  rods  =  1  furlong;  8  furlongs  =  1  statute  mile  (1760  yards  or 
5280  feet);  3  miles  =  1  league. 

Mariner's  Measure.  —  6  feet  =  1  fathom;  120  fathoms  =  1  cable  length; 
1\  cable  lengths  =  1  mile;  5280  feet  =  1  statute  mile;  6085  feet  =  1  nautical 
mile. 

Paper  Measure.  —  24  sheets  =  1  quire;  20  quires  =  1  ream  (480  sheets); 
2  reams  =  1  bundle;  5  bundles  =  1  bale. 

Square  Measure.  —  144  square  inches  =  1  square  foot;  9  square  feet  =  1 
square  yard;  30£  square  yards  =  1  square  rod  or  perch;  40  square  rods  =• 
1  rood;  4  roods  =  1  acre;  640  acres  =  1  square  mile;  36  square  miles 
(60  miles  square)  =  1  township. 

Time  Measure.  —  60  seconds  =  1  minute;  60  minutes  =  1  hour;  24  hours 
•=  1  day;  7  days  =  1  week;  365  days  =  1  year;  366  days  =  1  leap  year. 

5.   MINIMUM  WEIGHTS  OF  PRODUCE 

THE  following  are  minimum  weights  of  certain  articles  of  produce  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  the  United  States : 


PEB 

BUSHEL 

PER 

BUSHEL 

PER  BUSHEL 

Wheat   .... 

60  lb. 

White  Potatoes 

60  lb. 

Hungarian    Grass 

Corn,  in  the  ear  . 

70  Ib. 

Sweet  Potatoes 

55  lb. 

Seed     .     .     .     50  lb. 

Corn,  shelled  .     . 

56  lb. 

Onions     .     .     . 

57  lb. 

Timothy  Seed  .     45  lb. 

Rye       .... 

56  lb. 

Turnips   .     .     . 

55  lb. 

Blue  Grass  Seed    44  lb. 

Buckwheat     .     . 

48  lb. 

Dried  Peaches  . 

33  lb. 

Hemp  Seed.      .     44  lb. 

Barley  .... 

48  lb. 

Dried  Apples    . 

26  lb. 

Corn  Meal    .     .     48  lb. 

Oats      .... 

32  lb. 

Clover  Seed 

60  lb. 

Ground  Peas     .     24  lb. 

Peas      .... 

60  lb. 

Flax  Seed     .     . 

56  lb. 

Malt    ....     34  lb. 

White  Beans  .     . 

60  lb. 

Millet  Seed  ,     , 

50  lb. 

Bran  ,     ,     ,     ,     20  lb. 

Castor  Beans  .     . 

46  lb. 

APPENDIX 


359 


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APPENDIX  361 

7.  RULES  AND   SCORE  CARD  FOR  CORN  JUDGING  IN 
OKLAHOMA 

AGRICULTURAL  AND  MECHANICAL  COLLEGE,  STILLWATER 

Uniformity.  —  The  ears  in  an  exhibit  should  be  similar  in  size,  shape,  color, 
and  indentation.  For  each  ear  deficient  in  these  respects  cut  the  exhibit  one 
point. 

Shape  of  Ears.  —  The  ears  should  conform  to  variety  type,  usually  cylin- 
drical, tapering  slowly  from  butt  to  tip.  Cut  each  ear  one  point  that  does 
not  meet  requirements. 

Color  of  Cob.  —  Should  be  uniformly  red  for  yellow  corn  and  usually 
uniformly  white  for  white  corn.  For  each  white  cob  in  an  exhibit  of  yellow 
corn  cut  exhibit  one  half  point.  Do  same  for  each  red  cob  in  an  exhibit  of 
white  corn,  unless  variety  type  has  red  cob;  then  cut  for  white  cobs.  For 
other  colors  of  corn  cut  one  half  point  for  each  cob  that  is  off  from  predomi- 
nating color. 

Color  of  Kernels.  —  For  each  white-crowned  kernel  in  a  red  or  yellow 
variety,  cut  one  tenth  point.  For  each  yellow-cast  kernel  beneath  the  crown 
in  white  corn  cut  one  tenth  point. 

Market  Condition.  —  Ripe,  sound,  bright  ears,  firm  and  well  matured. 
For  each  ear  deficient  in  these  respects  cut  the  exhibit  one  point. 

Tips  of  Ears.  —  Not  too  tapering;  well  filled  with  regular,  uniform  kernels. 
Add  together  the  length  of  protruding  cobs  on  tips  of  all  ears  in  exhibit  and 
cut  at  the  rate  of  one  half  point  for  each  inch. 

Butts  of  Ears.  —  Rows  of  kernels  should  extend  in  regular  order  over  the 
butts.  Cut  the  exhibit  one  half  point  for  each  poorly  and  irregularly  filled 
butt,  and  one  fourth  point  for  each  flat  butt. 

Kernel  Uniformity.  —  Uniform  in  shape  and  size  and  conforming  to  variety 
type.  Remove  two  kernels  from  adjoining  rows  near  the  middle  of  each  ear, 
and  place  before  the  ear  with  germ  side  up.  Cut  the  exhibit  one  point  for 
each  ear  failing  in  above  points,  shown  by  pairs  of  kernels. 

Kernel  Shape.  —  Should  be  medium  wedge  shape,  straight  edge,  large  germ. 
Use  pairs  of  kernels  removed  for  scoring  last  point  (uniformity).  Cut  each 
ear  one  point  for  failing  in  above  points,  shown  by  pairs  of  kernels. 

Space.  —  Furrow  between  rows  small,  not  over  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch 
at  any  point  on  ear.  Cut  one  fourth  point  for  space  between  one  thirty- 
second  and  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch;  and  one  half  point  for  space  greater 
than  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch. 

Proportion  of  Corn  on  Ear.  —  Is  determined  by  weight;  should  not  be  less 
than  85  per  cent.  For  every  per  cent  below  that  cut  exhibit  one  point,  and 
for  every  per  cent  above  add  one  point.  To  get  the  per  cent,  weigh  ear, 
shell  corn,  weigh  shelled  corn,  divide  weight  of  shelled  corn  by  weight  of  ear. 

Weight  of  Grain.  —  Get  the  average  length  of  ears  in  exhibit;  use  the 
weight  of  grain  found  in  last  point.  For  each  ounce  below  number  required 
by  ears  of  given  length,  cut  the  exhibit  one  point,  and  for  each  ounce  above, 
add  one  point. 


362 


APPENDIX 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  CORN  JUDGING 
(A.  and  M.  College,  Stillwater,  Okla.) 


Variety  Name 


VALUE 

SAMPLE 
No. 

SAMPLE 
No. 

Student 
Score 

Corrected 
Score 

Student 
Score 

Corrected 
Score 

Uniformity  of  exhibit  
Shape  of  ears  

10 
10 
5 
5 
10 
5 
5 
10 
10 
5 
15 
10 

Color  of  cob  

Color  of  kernels  

Market  condition  
Tips  of  ears  

Butts  of  ears  

Uniformity  of  kernels  
Shape  of  kernels  
Space  between  ke-nels  .... 
Proportion  of  corn  on  ear  . 
Weight  of  grain  

Total  

100 

APPENDIX 


363 


8.   OUTLINE   FOR   SCORING  DENT  CORN 

MICHIGAN  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


THINGS  TO  CONSIDER 

RULE  FOB  Curs 

1   (a) 

(b) 
2 

Nearness  of  approach  to  type  as 
to  general  form  of  kernel,  in- 
dentation, etc. 

^  point  off  for  each  variation 
from  type. 

Likeness  between  ears  exhibited. 

\  point  off  for  each  odd  ear. 

Shape  of  ear.  Arrangement  and 
character  of  rows. 

£    point    off    for    each    poorly 
shaped  ear. 

3 

Freedom  from  cross  breeding 

Trueness  to  variety  color  of  ker- 
nel and  cob. 

red     cob   in 

white  ear  or 
10  points  off  for     whitecobin 

yellow  ear. 
-£$    point    off   for   each  mixed 
kernel.3 

4 
5 

1  Ripeness,  soundness,  freedom 
from  injury,  brightness  of 
color  and  vitality. 

1  point  off  for  every  diseased, 
injured,  chaffy,  or  immature 
ear. 

Uniformity  of   kernels,  regularity 
of  rows,  completeness  of  cover- 
ing.3 

\  point  off  for  every  badly  cov- 
ered tip. 
\  point  off  for  every  inch  of  ex- 
posed tip. 
|  point  off  for  every  J  inch  ex- 
posed tip. 

6 

Manner  of  rounding  out  and  qual- 
ity of  kernels. 

3-  point  off  for  every  uncovered 
butt. 
T%  point  off  when  butt  is  covered 
but  kernels  are  flat. 

7  (a) 
(b) 

Likeness  in  shape  and  conformity 
to  type. 

%  point  for  each  set  of  kernels 
lacking  in  general  uniformity. 

Approach  to  ideal  wedge  shape. 

£  point  off  for  each  set  of  poorly 
shaped  kernels. 

8 

Variation  from  standard  length. 

1  point  off  for  every  inch  of  ex- 
cess or  deficiency  in  length  of 
ear. 

1  Indicated  by  firmness  of  kernel  on  cob.      2  Does  not  have  reference  to 
length  of  cob. 


3  Kernels  missing  count  as  mixed  kernels. 


364 


APPENDIX 


THINGS  TO  CONSIDER 

RULE  FOB  Co-re 

9 

Variation  from  standard  circum- 
ference. 

1  point  off  for  every  2  inches  of 
excess  or  deficiency  in  cir- 
cumference of  ear. 

10  (a) 
(b) 

Outer  space. 

No   cut  for  less  than   fa   inch 
between  rows. 
J  point  off  for  fa  to  1*5  inch  be- 
tween rows. 
|  point  off  for  fa  inch  between 
rows. 

Inner  space. 

\  to  i  point  off  for  each  marked 
case  of  space  between  near 
points  of  rows. 

11 

Per  cent  of  grain  to  ear. 

1  point  off  for  each  per  cent 
short  in  weight  of  corn. 

For  Dent  Corn  ears  should  have  length  of  9  inches,  circumference  of  7 
inches,  and  shell  88  per  cent  grain. 

9.    SCORE   CARD   FOR  CORN  IN  NEBRASKA 

Variety  Name Number  of  Exhibit 


VALUE 

STUDENT'S 
SCORE 

CORRECTED 
SCORE 

Uniformity  of  exhibit 

10 

10 

Color  of  cob     

5 

Color  of  kernels                              .          . 

'     5 

10 

Tips  of  ears      

5 

Butts  of  ears 

5 

Uniformity  of  kernels    

10 

Shape  of  kernels                 

10 

Space  between  kernels 

5 

Proportion  of  corn  on  ear       .... 

10 

Weight  of  grain    

15 

Student's  Name. 


Date. 


APPENDIX 


365 


10.   SCORE  CARD  FOR   JUDGING  SEA  ISLAND  AND   UPLAND 

COTTON 

(U.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry) 


Size  of  bolls,  15  points 


Length  of  lint,  20  points 


Fineness  of  lint,  10  points 


Yield,  20  points 


Uniformity  in  length,  7  points        .     . 


Strength  of  lint,  10  points 


Per  cent  of  lint,  18  points 


f  Very  large,  15  points. 
Large,  14  points. 
Medium,  12  points. 
Small,  8  points. 
Very  small,  3  points. 

2  inches,  20  points. 

l£in.  19  points. 

If  in.  18  points. 

If  in.  17  points. 

1£  in.  15  points. 

If  in.  10  points. 

1|  in.  5  points. 

Very  fine,  10  points. 
Fine,  8  points. 
Medium,  6  points. 
Coarse,  3  points. 

Excellent,  20  points. 
Good,  18  points. 
Medium,  15  points. 
Light  medium,  10  points. 
Light,  5  points. 

Excellent,  7  points. 
Good,  6  points. 
Fair,  4  points. 
Poor,  2  points. 

Very  strong,  10  points. 
Strong,  8  points. 
Medium,  8  points. 
Weak,  3  points 

33  per  cent,  18  points. 
31-32  per  cent,  17  points. 
29-30  per  cent,  16  points. 
27-28  per  cent,  15  points. 
25-26  per  cent,  10  points 
23-24  per  cent,  5  points. 


366 


APPENDIX 


11.   LIST  OF  CENTRAL  STATIONS  OF  UNITED  STATES 
WEATHER  BUREAU 


Alabama,  Montgomery. 
Arizona,  Phcenix. 
Arkansas,  Little  Rock. 
California,  San  Francisco. 
Colorado,  Denver. 
Florida,  Jacksonville. 
Georgia,  Atlanta. 
Idaho,  Boise. 
Illinois,  Springfield. 
Indiana,  Indianaoolis. 
Iowa,  Des  Moines. 
Kansas,  Topeka. 
Kentucky,  Louisville. 
Louisiana,  New  Orleans. 
Maryland,  Baltimore 

(for      Delaware      and 

Maryland). 


Massachusetts,  Boston 
(for  New  England). 

Michigan,  Grand  Rapids. 

Minnesota,  Minneapolis. 

Mississippi,  Vicksburg. 

Missouri,  Columbia. 

Montana,  Helena. 

Nebraska,  Lincoln. 

Nevada,  Reno. 

New    Jersey,    Atlantic 
City. 

New  Mexico,  Santa  Fe". 

New  York,  Ithaca. 

North  Carolina,  Raleigh. 

North      Dakota,      Bis- 
marck. 

Ohio,  Columbus. 


Oklahoma,  Oklahoma. 

Oregon,  Portland. 

Pennsylvania,  Philadel- 
phia. 

South  Carolina,  Colum- 
bia. 

South  Dakota,  Huron. 

Tennessee,  Nashville. 

Texas,  Galveston. 

Utah,  Salt  Lake  City. 

Virginia,  Richmond. 

Washington,  Seattle. 

West  Virginia,  Parkers- 
burg. 

Wisconsin,  Milwaukee. 

Wyoming,  Cheyenne. 


APPENDIX  367 


SIMPLE  EXPERIMENTS 

A  great  many  teachers  imagine  that  instruction  in  agriculture  cannot 
be  given  without  a  large  laboratory  and  expensive  equipment,  but  this  is 
far  from  the  truth. 

Much  of  the  material  needed  is  inexpensive,  and  many  of  the  exercises 
are  so  simple  that  even  the  untrained  teacher  in  the  one-room  rural  school 
need  have  no  hesitation  in  undertaking  such  work.  The  materials  absolutely 
essential  are  as  follows:  two  dozen  tomato  cans,  half  a  dozen  lard  pails, 
a  few  baking-powder  cans,  a  number  of  empty  bottles,  a  few  cigar  boxes, 
a  collection  of  typical  soils, — such  as  common  clay,  sand,  and  loam,  —  and  a 
few  farm  and  garden  crop  seeds.  Many  other  things  of  this  kind  may  be 
added  to  our  equipment  at  little  or  no  cost.  To  this  we  may  add  by  pur- 
chase an  8-ounce  graduate,  costing  10  cents;  four  dairy  thermometers  at 
60  cents;  six  student's  lamp  chimneys,  30  cents;  100  5-inch  filter  papers, 
15  cents;  a  pint  glass  funnel,  15  cents;  a  4-bottle  Babcock  milk  tester, 
with  test  bottles,  pipette  acid  measure,  and  acid  for  tests,  $5;  an  alcohol 
lamp,  25  cents;  a  kitchen  scale  with  dial  which  will  register  from  one  ounce 
to  twenty-four  pounds,  90  cents;  twelve  ordinary  glass  tumblers,  50  cents; 
one  dozen  Mason  fruit  jars,  $1;  a  small  quantity  of  litmus  paper;  a  few 
ordinary  China  plates;  pie  tins;  ten  yards  cheese  cloth;  a  few  lamp  wicks; 
a  few  pieces  of  window  glass  —  and  our  outfit  is  practically  complete,  and 
all  at  a  cost  slightly  exceeding  $10. 

Superintendent  Guy  M.  Lisk  of  Alva,  Oklahoma,  offers  a  valuable  agricul- 
ture cabinet  for  $25  which  contains  sufficient  apparatus  for  all  ordinary 
purposes. 

With  such  an  equipment  we  are  prepared  to  determine  the  comparative 
temperature,  weight,  acidity,  alkalinity,  porosity,  capillarity,  and  fertility 
of  different  soils;  to  test  their  water-holding  capacity  and  readiness  with 
which  they  may  be  drained,  and  to  show  the  effect  of  cultivation,  mulching, 
and  puddling  on  the  moisture  content  and  physical  condition  of  different 
soils.  Much  of  your  work  may  be  of  such  a  practical  character  that  it 
would  be  of  immediate  benefit  to  the  agriculture  of  the  community,  such  as 
testing  seeds  for  vitality;  milk  and  cream  for  butter  fat;  treating  oats  and 
wheat  for  smut,  and  potatoes  for  scab;  spraying  plants  for  insect  pests;  mak- 
ing plans  for  farm  buildings,  roads,  walks,  etc.  Such  work  could  be  done 
largely  by  the  pupils  at  school  or  on  different  farms  on  Saturdays,  if  no  other 
time  was  convenient  for  the  purpose.  This  would  be  educational  and  at  the 
same  time  would  make  the  farmers  feel  that  they  were  getting  some  im- 
mediate tangible  return  on  the  taxes  paid  for  the  support  of  the  school. 

Then,  aside  from  its  practical  value,  agriculture  may  be  made  an  aid  to 
other  school  work  in  many  ways.  Mathematics  will  be  applied  in  the  use  of 
weights  and  measures,  while  the  principles  of  percentage  and  proportion 
will  enter  into  the  solution  of  nearly  every  problem  in  soils.  Composition 
will  lose  some  of  its  bad  flavor  and  spelling  will  no  longer  be  distasteful 


368  APPENDIX 

when  applied  to  the  description  of  experiments  in  which  the  pupils  are  inter- 
ested. Manual  training  will  find  expression  in  the  making  of  boxes,  labels, 
farm  levels,  and  many  other  appliances  used  in  the  various  experiments. 
Some  of  the  principles  of  Botany,  Physics,  and  Chemistry  will  be  learned  and 
applied  in  our  study  with  soils,  plants,  and  milk.  When  handled  in  this 
way,  all  of  the  work  will  leave  a  more  lasting  impression,  because  it  is  con- 
crete, and  at  the  same  time  it  will  be  more  interesting  because  it  is  connected 
with  the  life  and  occupation  of  the  pupils. 

—  Excerpt  from  article  by  J.  W.  Wilkinson. 

On  account  of  the  differences  in  climate,  soil,  and  the  kinds  of  crops 
raised  in  the  various  parts  of  our  country,  it  is  difficult  to  offer  a  set  of 
laboratory  experiments  in  agriculture  that  will  be  specially  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  each  locality.  The  teacher  will  find  it  best  to  consult  a  number  of 
laboratory  manuals  in  agriculture  and  then  select  such  work  as  will  best  suit 
the  needs  of  his  pupils.  Any  experiment  that  helps  to  fix  a  principle  in  the 
mind  and  that  is  brief  and  interesting  should  be  introduced. 

A  great  deal  of  field  work  should  be  introduced  and  made  the  foundation 
for  this  work.  The  school  garden,  the  improvement  of  the  school  yard,  and 
school  excursions  may  be  made  interesting  and  instructive  features  of  in- 
struction in  agriculture  when  properly  managed. 

Useful  suggestions  for  laboratory  exercises  will  be  found  in  the  following 
manuals: 

One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Elementary  Agriculture,  Nolan,  Acme  Pub.  Co., 

Morgan  town,  West  Virginia. 

Rural  School  Agriculture,  Davis,  Orange  Judd  Co. 
Dairy  Laboratory  Guide,  Melick,  D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  N.Y. 
Soil  Physics  Laboratory  Guide,  Stevenson  &  Schaub,  Orange  Judd  Co. 
Manual  of  Corn  Judging,  Shamel,  Orange  Judd  Co. 

One  Hundred  Experiments  in  Agriculture,  Riley  O.  Johnson,  Chico,  California, 
Illustrative  Material  for  Agriculture,  D.  J.  Crosby,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture. 
Physical  Properties  of  Soils,  McCall,  Orange  Judd  Co. 


APPENDIX 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 

Alabama  —  College   Station,    Auburn.     Canebrake  Station,   Uniontown. 

Tuskegee  Station,  Tuskegee. 
Alaska  —  Sitka. 
Arizona  —  Tucson. 
Arkansas  —  Fayetteville. 
California  —  Berkeley. 
Colorado  —  Fort  Collins. 

Connecticut  —  State  Station,  New  Haven      Storrs  Station,  Storrs. 
Delaware  —  Newark. 
Florida  —  Gainesville. 
Georgia  —  Experiment. 
Hawaii  —  Federal  Station,  Honolulu. 
Idaho  —  Moscow. 
Illinois  —  Urbana. 
Indiana  —  Lafayette. 
Iowa  —  Ames. 
Kansas  —  Manhattan. 
Kentucky —  Lexington. 
Louisiana  —  State   Station,     Baton   Rouge.     Sugar    Station,    Audubon 

Park.     North  Louisiana  Station,  Calhoun. 
Maine  —  Orono. 
Maryland  —  College  Park. 
Massachusetts  —  Amherst. 
Michigan  —  East  Lansing. 
Minnesota  —  St.  Anthony  Park,  St.  Paul. 
Mississippi  —  Agricultural  College. 

Missouri  —  College  Station,   Columbia.     Fruit  Station,    Mountain  Grove. 
Montana  —  Bozeman. 
Nebraska  —  Lincoln. 
Nevada  —  Reno. 
New  Hampshire  —  Durham. 
New  Jersey  —  New  Brunswick. 
New  Mexico  —  Agricultural  College. 

New  York  —  State  Station,  Geneva.     Cornell  Station,  Ithaca. 
North  Dakota  —  Agricultural  College. 
North  Carolina  — West  Raleigh. 

Ohio  —  Experiment  Station,  Wooster.     College  Station,  Columbus. 
Oklahoma  —  Stillwater. 
Oregon  —  Corvallis. 

PRAC.    AGRICUL. — 24 


370  APPENDIX 

Pennsylvania  —  State  College. 

Philippine  Islands  —  Federal  Station,  Manila. 

Porto  Rico  —  Mayaguez. 

Rhode  Island  —  Kingston. 

South  Carolina  —  Clemson  College. 

South  Dakota  —  Brookings. 

Tennessee  —  Knoxville. 

Texas  —  College  Station. 

Utah  —  Logan. 

Vermont  —  Burlington. 

Virginia  —  Blacksburg. 

Washington  —  Pullman. 

West  Virginia  —  Morgantown. 

Wisconsin  —  Madison. 

Wyoming  —  Laramie. 


UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  WASHINGTON,  D.C. 
Special  Divisions 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  Bureau  of  Statistics. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.  Division  of  Publications. 

Bureau  of  Entomology.  Forest  Service. 

Bureau  of  Biological  Survey.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 

Bureau  of  Chemistry.  Office  of  Public  Roads. 

Bureau  of  Soils,  Weather  Bureau. 


SUGGESTED  LIST  OF  AGRICULTURAL  APPARATUS 
AND  SUPPLIES 

LIST       NET 

6  Tumblers      .         . $     .30      $ 

1  Glass  Rod,  8  x  |" .05 

1  Ib  Nitric  Acid  and  GSB  (glass  stopper  bottle)        .  .30 

1  Ib  Charcoal  Lumps .11 

6  W.  M.  Bottles,  16  oz.    .         .                 .         .      •  .  .45 

1  Ib  Cotton  Batting .33 

1  Glass  Tray    .  .20 

6  Lightning  Jars,  1  pt .  .75 

6  Candles,  12's .11 

3  ft.  Rubber  Tubing,  \"  .        ...        .        .  .36 

1  Ib  Marble  Chips    ....  .11 

1  ft)  Hydrochloric  Acid  and  GSB 27 

2  Ib  Copper  Sulphate  %  .27 

3  Crystallizing  Dishes,  4"          .  .75 
6  Argand  Lamp  Chimneys       .  .38 

Bladder         ........  .16 

Ib  Granulated  Zinc        .  .18 

pt.  Alcohol  and  bottle  ......  .60 

Ib  Camphor  Gum          .  .55 

Balance         .         .        .        .        .         .        .        .  3.10 

Set  Weights,  1  Ib  down         .        .        „        .        .  1.10 

1  Germinating  Box .55 

2  Ib  Mercury  and  bottle 2.00 

i  Ib  Glass  Tubing,  |" 22 

1  Graduate,  8  oz.,  250  cc 65 

1  Book  Red  Litmus  Paper  .06 

1  Book  Blue  Litmus  Paper      .....  .06 

1  Pasteurizing  Apparatus  (heavy  tin,  with  handles 

and  covers,  rack  holds  and  graduated  bottles 

and  brush  for  cleaning)      .....  2.75 
(2  Milk  Tester  Bottle  Machines,  with  2  cream  test 

bottles  and  combination  pipette)      .         .        .  5.00 

371 


372 


LIST   OF   APPARATUS   AND   SUPPLIES 


LIST       NET 

(4  Milk  Tester  Bottle  Machines,  complete,  for  test-     $  $ 

ing  cream  and  milk,  including  two  test  cream 
bottles  and  combined  pipettes)  .        .        .        6.60 

(6  Milk  Tester  Bottle  Machines,  inclosed  with  full 
set  of  glassware,  including  test  bottle  pipette, 
acid  measure,  test  bottle  brush,  and  bottle  of 

acid) 10.00 

1  Measuring  Pipette,  17.6  x  18  cc 22 

1  Milk  Test  Bottle 22 

1  Cream  Test  Bottle,  30% 33 

1  Cream  Test  Bottle,  40% .39 

1  Cream  Test  Bottle,  50% 44 

1  Cream  Test  Bottle,  9"  long,  grad.  t    55%  by  \% 

division .50 

1  Acid  Measure,  17.5  cc .17 

1  Dairy  Thermometer .33 

12  Milk  Bottles,  1  pt 66 

1  Jar,  Glass,  4x5" 20 

1  Petri  Dish 25 

1  Cyanide  Bottle 17 

1  Earth  Thermometer 1.25 

1  Ib  Charcoal  Powder .11 

6  Flower  Pots,  with  saucers,  6"        .        .        .        .         1.10 
\  gal.  Ammonia  and  bottle      ......          .77 

25  Ib  Acid  Phosphate 1.10 

5  Ib  Bone  Meal 44 

25  Ib  Rock  Phosphate 55 

5  Ib  Muriate  of  Potash 66 

10  Ib  Kainite 55 

5  Ib  Sulphate  of  Potash 66 

25  Ib  Dried  Blood 2.00 

5  Ib  Gypsum .27 

5  Ib  Guano .66 

,  1  Ruler 04 

1  Tape  Line,  10  m. .75 

12  Paper  Bags 16 

1  pkg.  Paper  Tags 11 

1  Ball  Twine 11 

1  Knife .22 

5  Ib  Formaldehyde  and  bottle .         ...  1.65 

1  Knife,  budding  and  propagating  .         .         .        2.00 


LIST  Of  APPARATUS  AND  SUPPLIES  373 

LIST       NET 
1  Ib  Grafting  Wax,  prepared    .        .  •     .        .        .     $    .55      $ 

1  Insect  Net    .  1.10 

1  Pruning  Saw,  double  edge,  18"      .        .        .        .         1.25 

1  Pruning  Scissors  .   ' .80 

12  Sheets  Cork,  for  insect  box 1.10 

1000  Insect  Pins 1.00 

1  Ib  Paris  Green,  dry .45 

4  Ib  Copper  Sulphate,  dry .55 

1  Ib  Bordeaux  Mixture,  dry      ......          .40 

1  Ib  Whale  Oil  Soap         .        .        .        .        .        .          .27 

1  Ib  Sulphur  Flour    .......          .11 

1  Bucket  Pump,  with  lever  handle  and  Bordeaux 

nozzle  for  spraying  6.60 

Score  Cards  (per  block  of  50  on  the  following  sub- 
jects sold  only  in  blocks),  per  block  .        .        .          .55 

Cattle,  Beef. 

Cattle,  Dairy. 

Corn. 

Cotton. 

Fruit. 

Hogs,  Breeding. 

Horse,  Draft. 

Horses,  Light. 

Market  Cream. 

Oats. 

Sheep. 

Wheat. 

6  Test-tubes,  6  x  £ " 15 

1  Test-tube  Support .27 

1  Rubber  Stopper,  2-holed,  to  fit  4541  4  oz.     .        .          .11 
1  Test-tube  Clamp 10 

1  Test-tube  Brush 05 

2  Dissecting  Needles .14 

1  Forceps         .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .          .11 

I  Ring  Stand,  2  rings .50 

1  Glass  Funnel,  5" 21 

1  Student's  Dissecting  Microscope   .        .        .        .         1.50 

1  Alcohol  Lamp,  4  oz .27 

1  pkg.  Filter  Paper,  5"  12.5  cm 15 

1  Ea.  Reagent  Bottles,  #  2  4,  15 50 

1  Microscope    .      '  .        .        ...        .        .        .  29.25 


3/4  LISr  OF  APPARATUS  AND  SUPPLIES 

LIST  NET 

72  Slides    .        .        . $    .50      $ 

£-oz.  Cover  Glasses,  #  2,  round,  f   .        .        .        .          .45 

1  Soil  Auger,  2" .'       6.60 

1  Canvas  Bag,  to  hold  samples  of  soil      ...          .22 

1  piece  White  Oil  Cloth,  18  x  18" 20 

1  Evap.  Dish,  3" 13 

1  Drying  Oven,  10  x  12,  single  wall        .        .        .        8.50 

6  Soil  Pans,  zinc,  4J  x  3|  H"         ....        1.20 

1  Harvard  Trip  Scale  (recommended)       ...  5.25 

1  Set  Weights,  1  kilo  to  5  grams      .        .        .        .         1.20 

6  Jars,  1  qt 85 

1  Crucible,  pore.,  #00 16 

1  Desiccator,  4" .60 

1  Thermometer .45 

Earth  Boxes,  zinc,  4  x  4  x  8",  inclosed  in  wooden 

box  for  determining  the  absorptive  properties 

of  different  soils 2.00 

Soil  Tubes,  galvanized  iron,  12  x  2",  solid  bottom  .50 
(Soil  Tubes,  brass,  12  x  2",  solid  bottom)  .  .  1.50 
Soil  Tube,  galvanized  iron,  12  x  2",  perforated 

bottom,  V  from  end  tube          ....  .60 

(Soil  Tube,  brass,  12  x  2",  perforated  bottom,  I" 

from  end  of  tube) 1.50 

Soil  Tubes.  12  x  2",  for  percolation  experiment, 
with  two  lateral  inlets  and  one  drain  pipe  of 

galvanized  iron 1.10 

(Soil  Tubes,  same  as  above  of  brass)     .        .        .         2.25 
12  Tubes,  to  test  the  capillary  rise  of  water  in  dif- 
ferent soils,  60  x  l" 5.24 

2  yd.  Cheese  Cloth 16 

3  Glass  Tubes,  24  x  2,  to  test  effect  of  vegetable 

water  upon  the  capillarity  of  soils  .  .  .  1.65 

1  Wooden  Rolling  Pin 25 

1  Centrifuge  and  Tubes 10.00 

1  Sieve,  wooden  frame,  brass  gauze,  5"  diam.,  set  of 

6,  10  to  100  mesh 3.30 

1  Beaker,  350  cc 21 

1  Water  Bath,  4'; 1.50 

12  Milk  Bottles,  1  qt. .77 


GLOSSARY 

Abdomen,  the  part  of  an  insect  behind  the  thorax. 

Acid,  a  sour  substance  that  turns  blue  litmus  paper  red. 

Alkali,  a  caustic  substance  that  turns  red  litmus  paper  blue. 

Annual,  a  plant  that  makes  its  growth,  matures  its  seed,  and  dies  within  a 
year. 

Anther,  the  little  sac  at  the  end  of  the  stamen  bearing  the  pollen. 

Available  food,  food  that  can  be  used  by  the  plant. 

Bacteria,  the  simplest  and  smallest  forms  of  plant  life.     They  may  be  spher- 
ical, elongated,  or  rodlike  in  form. 

Balanced  ration,  food  consisting  of  the  proper  amounts  of  carbohyrates,  fats, 
and  proteids. 

Biennial,  a  plant  which  matures  its  seed  and  dies  the  second  year. 

Blight,  a  disease  which  causes  all  or  a  part  of  a  plant  to  wither  and  die. 

Bluestone,  copper  sulphate. 

Bordeaux  Mixture,  a  spray  consisting  of  bluestone,  lime,  and  water. 

Bud,  a  small  branch  in  an  undeveloped  state. 

Budding  Stick,  a  young  shoot  of  one  season's  growth. 

Calyx,  the  flower's  outer  row  of  leaflike  forms ;  the  outer  envelope. 

Calcareous,  containing  lime. 

Cambium,  the  thin-walled  formative  tissue  between  the  bark  and  the  wood. 

Carbohydrates,  foods  free  from  nitrogen,  as  sugar,  starch,  and  cellulose. 

Chlorophyll,  a  green  granular  substance  found  in  the  stems  and  leaves  ol 
plants. 

Cohesion,  attraction  between  particles  of  the  same  substance. 

Compost,  a  fertilizing  mixture. 

Concentrates,  rich  feeding  materials  such  as  grains  and  oil  cake. 

Cross,  the  result  of  breeding  two  varieties  of  plants  or  animals  together. 

Dormant,  sleeping  or  inactive. 

Disintegration,  crumbling  to  pieces. 

Element,  a  simple  substance  such  as  iron  or  silver. 

Ensilage,  green  feed  preserved  in  an  air-tight  pit  or  silo. 

Entomology,  the  science  which  treats  of  the  life  and  habits  of  insects. 

Evaporate,  to  pass  off  in  the  air  in  the  form  of  vapor. 

Filter,  to  clarify  a  liquid  by  passing  it  through  cloth,  paper,  sand,  char- 
coal, etc. 

Filter  Paper,  porous  unsized  paper  used  for  filtering. 

Fungxide,  a  preparation  which  checks  or  kills  fungi. 

Fungus,  a  flowerless  plant  lacking  chlorophyll,  as  molds,  and  mushrooms. 

Germinate,  to  sprout. 

Germ,  that  from  which  any  life  springs. 

Glacier,  a  vast  moving  body  of  ice. 

Graft,  a  branch  of  one  plant  inserted  in  the  stem  of  another  plant  so  that  it 
will  unite  with  it  and  grow. 

Green  Manuring,  growing  crops  plowed  under  for  fertilizing  purposes. 

375 


376  GLOSSARY 

Gypsum,  land  plaster  consisting  of  calcium  sulphate. 

Host,  the  plant  on  which  a  parasite  lives. 

Humus,  decayed  animal  or  vegetable  matter. 

Hybrid,  the  result  of  breeding  two  different  species  of  animals  or  two  differ- 
ent species  of  plants  together. 

Inoculate,  to  communicate  bacteria  germs  by  introducing  matter  contain- 
ing a  supply  of  them. 

Insecticide,  a  preparation  for  destroying  insects. 

Irrigation,  an  artificial  system  of  canals  and  ditches  for  supplying  water  to 
cultivated  lands. 

Kainit,  a  compound  substance  generally  consisting  of  sulphate  of  potash, 
sulphate  of  magnesia,  and  chloride  of  magnesia.  Sometimes  the  analy- 
sis shows  sulphate  of  magnesia  and  chloride  of  potassium  (Storer's  Agri- 
culture, Vol.  II,  p.  493). 

Kerosene  Emulsion,  a  spray  consisting  of  kerosene  oil,  water,  and  soap. 

Lactic  Acid,  acid  derived  from  milk  sugar. 

Larva,  the  immature  form  or  grub  of  insects. 

Lichens,  low  mosslike  and  flowerless  plants  that  grow  on  rocks  and  wood. 

Loam,  a  soil  containing  sand,  clay,  and  vegetable  matter. 

Marl,  a  mixture  containing  carbonate  of  lime,  siliceous  sand,  and  clay  in  vary- 
ing proportions. 

Mildew,  a  cobweblike  growth  of  fungi  on  decaying  matter. 

Mold,  a  white  furry  growth  found  on  damp  bread,  preserved  fruits,  manure 
heaps,  etc. 

Muck,  decayed  vegetable  matter. 

Mulch,  a  light  cover  of  leaves,  straw,  or  some  other  substance  spread  on  the 
ground  to  preserve  the  moisture  and  to  protect  the  roots  of  the  plant. 

Nitrate,  a  soluble  compound  containing  a  readily  usable  form  of  nitrogen. 

Nodule,  a  little  knot  of  rounded  mass  formed  by  certain  bacteria  on  roots 
of  leguminous  plants. 

Noxious,  injurious  or  poisonous. 

Nutrient,  any  substance  that  promotes  growth  in  plants  and  animals. 

Organic  Matter,  substances  formed  in  the  growth  of  plants  and  animals. 

Osmosis,  the  mixing  of  liquids  of  different  densities  through  cell  walls  or 
membranes. 

Ovary,  the  lower  part  of  the  pistil  that  bears  the  young  seed. 

Oxidation,  combining  with  oxygen  to  form  an  oxide. 

Parasite,  any  living  form  that  derives  its  nourishment  by  preying  upon  some 
living  plant  or  animal: 

Perennial,  living  from  year  to  year. 

Petal,  a  single  leaf  of  the  corolla  or  the  inner  colored  envelope  of  the  flower. 

Pistil,  the  seed-bearing  organ  of  the  flower. 

Pollen,  the  dustlike  substance  of  the  stamens  which  fertilizes  the  ovules  or 
seeds. 

Pollination,  the  transference  of  the  pollen  from  the  stamens  to  the  pistils. 

Propagate,  to  cause  plants  or  animals  to  increase  their  kind. 


GLOSSARY  377 

Proteid,  the  constituent  of  food  that  contains  nitrogen. 

Protein,  the  total  amount  of  nitrogenous  material  calculated  by  multiplying 
the  nitrogen  by  6.25,  since  proteids  contain  about  16%  of  nitrogen. 

Pruning,  trimming  the  branches  of  trees  or  plants  for  a  specific  purpose. 

Ration,  a  fixed  daily  allowance  of  food. 

Rotation,  a  certain  round  or  succession  of  crops. 

Roughage,  coarse  feed,  such  as  hay,  straw,  or  cornstalks. 

Scion,  a  shoot  of  one  season's  growth  used  in  grafting  or  budding. 

Sepal,  one  of  the  leaves  in  the  calyx  or  outer  envelope  of  the  flower. 

Silage,  green  food  preserved  in  a  silo,  or  other  air-tight  house. 

Siliceous,  containing  silica. 

Sire,  father. 

Spores,  reproductive  parts  of  fungi  that  correspond  to  the  seed  in  flowering 
plants. 

Sport,  a  plant  or  animal  in  which  there  is  a  marked  variation  from  the  origi- 
nal type. 

Stamen,  the  part  of  the  flower  which  bears  the  anthers  and  pollen. 

Sterilize,  to  destroy  germs  by  heat  or  chemicals. 

Stock,  a  seedling  tree  used  in  budding  or  grafting. 

Stover,  dried  cornstalks  from  which  the  grain  has  been  taken. 

Subsoil,  the  portion  of  the  ground  under  the  top  soil. 

Taproot,  the  main  root  of  the  plant. 

Thorax,  the  portion  of  an  insect's  body  between  the  head  and  abdomen. 

Tillage,  the  preparing  of  the  land  for  crops. 

Transplanting,  taking  up  plants  and  resetting  them. 

Tubercle,  a  small  knot  or  wartlike  growth  on  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants. 

Udder,  the  milk  organs  of  a  cow. 

Unicellular,  consisting  of  a  single  cell. 

Ventilate  to  give  free  access  for  the  air. 

Virgin  Soil,  land  that  has  not  been  cultivated  at  any  time. 

Vitality,  ability  to  germinate  and  grow. 

Volatilize,  to  pass  off  in  the  form  of  vapor. 

Water  Table,  the  level  of  standing  water  in  the  ground. 

Withers,  the  high  point  above  the  shoulders  of  a  horse  or  mule. 

Yeast,  a  collection  of  single-celled  plants  whose  growth  changes  sugar  to 
alcohol  and  carbon.  It  is  the  agent  which  causes  bread  to  rise. 


INDEX 


Aberdeen-Angus  cattle,  314 
Acetylene,  287. 
Acorns,  231. 
Agriculture  denned,  8. 
Air,  13. 

Albuminoids,  291. 
Alcohol,  289. 
Alfalfa,  99. 
Alkali  soils,  36. 
Alluvial  soils,  26. 
Almonds,  299. 
Aluminum,  39. 
Angora  goats,  122 
Animal  fibers,  120. 
Animal  husbandry,  303. 
Animals,  beneficial,  189. 

domestic,  303. 

harmful,  179, 
Annuals,  237. 
Anther,  143. 
Apple  scab,  172. 
Apples,  218. 
Apricots,  221. 
Aqueous  rocks,  25. 
Arabian  horse,  309. 
Army  worm,  183. 
Artichokes,  109. 
Ashes,  129. 
Asparagus,  196. 
Asphalt  road,  273. 
Atmosphere,  composition  of,  13. 
Ayrshire  cattle,  318. 

Babcock  test,  320. 
Bacteria,  169. 
Banana,  226. 
Barley,  87. 
Barns,  279. 
Beans,  199. 
Beef  breeds,  314. 
Bees,  335. 
Beetle,  182. 
Beets,  104. 
Beggar  weed,  102. 
Berkshire  hogs,  323. 
Bermuda  grass,  93. 
Berries,  207. 


Biennials,  237. 

Birds,  185. 

Bitter  rot,  172. 

Blackberry,  207. 

Black  knot,  173. 

Black  rot,  172. 

Blight,  171,  173. 

Block-paved  roads,  278. 

Blue  grass,  93, 

Bordeaux  mixture,  172. 

Boron,  41. 

Brazil  nuts,  232. 

Brick-paved  road,  272. 

Brown  rot,  172. 

Brussels  sprouts,  106. 

Buckshot  soil,  35. 

Bulbs,  235. 

Burbank,  Luther,  148,  208,  306 

Burdock,  174. 

Butterfly,  181. 

Butternuts,  230. 

Cabbage,  105,  196. 
Cacao,  211. 
Calcium,  39. 
Calyx,  142. 
Cambrium,  139. 
Canada  thistle,  175. 
Candles,  289. 
Cankerworm,  183. 
Capillary  water,  43,  44. 
Carbohydrates,  292. 
Carbon,  13,  40. 
Carbon  dioxide,  13. 
Carrots,  106. 
Cashmere  goats,  122. 
Caterpillar,  183. 
Cats,  335. 
Cattle,  313. 
Cauliflower,  105. 
Celery,  195. 
Cellulose,  292. 
Cereals,  68. 
Charcoal,  285. 
Cherries,  221. 
Cheshire  hogs,  325. 
Chester  white  hogs,  394. 

279 


386 


INDEX 


Chestnuts,  231. 
Chinch  bugs,  182. 
Chinquapins,  230. 
Cheviot  sheep,  329. 
Chickens,  331. 
Chlorine,  41. 
Chlorophyll,  63. 
Chufa,  109. 

Civic  improvement,  242. 
Clay,  30,  35. 
Clover,  97. 
Club  root,  173. 
Clubs,  344. 
Coach  horse,  311. 
Coal,  286. 
Cocklebur,  174. 
Cocoanut,  231. 
Codling  moth,  184. 
Coffee,  210. 
Coke,  286. 
Composts,  131. 
Contest  clubs,  247. 
Copper  sulphate,  172. 
Corms,  236. 
Corn,  68. 
Corolla,  142. 
Cotswold  sheep,  329. 
Cotton,  111. 
Cotton-boll  weevil,  184. 
Cowpeas,  100. 
Cows,  314. 
Cranberry,  209. 
Crops,  classes  of,  65. 

rotation  of,  124. 
Cross  fertilization,  163. 
Cucumbers,  198. 
Curculio,  182. 
Currant,  213. 
Currant  worm,  183. 
Cutworms,  184. 
Cuttings,  151. 

Dairy  breeds,  317. 
Dairying,  320. 
Daisy,  177. 
Dates,  225. 
Delaine  sheep,  326. 
Devon  cattle,  314. 
Dewberries,  208. 
Dirt  roads,  270. 
Diseases  of  plants,  171. 
Dogs,  335. 

Domestic  animals,  309. 
Dorset  sheep,  328. 
Draft  horses,  310. 
Drainage,  50,  267. 
Drift  soils,  26. 


Ducks,  302. 

Duroc  Jersey  hogs,  324. 

Dutch  belted  cattle,  319. 

Eggplants,  198. 
Electricity,  289. 
Elements,  chemical,  39. 
Essex  hogs,  323. 
Evaporation,  46. 
Experiments,  367. 

Farm  crops,  65. 

Farm  improvements,  277. 

Fats,  292. 

Feeding,  principles  of,  291,  295. 

Feeding  stuffs,  355. 

Felt  waste,  129. 

Fences,  281. 

Fertilization,  144. 

Fertilizers,  128. 

Fiber  crops,  111. 

Figs,  225. 

Fire  blight,  171. 

Flax,  116. 

Flower  gardening,  234. 

Fluorine,  41. 

Food,  291. 

Forage,  93. 

Forest  enemies,  262. 

Forestry,  259. 

French  Canadian  cattle,  319. 

Frogs,  190. 

Fuel,  285. 

Fungi,  167,  171. 

Fungicides,  172. 

Galloway  cattle,  314. 
Garden,  flower,  234. 

school,  242. 

window,  239. 

Gardening,  landscape,  251. 
Gas,  286. 
Gasolene,  287. 
Gates,  283. 
Geese,  334. 
Germicides,  172. 
Germs,  167.  ' 
Glacial  age,  26. 
Goats,  189,  330. 
Gooseberries,  212. 
Gophers,  188. 
Grafting,  154. 
Grafting  wax,  155. 
Grape  fruit,  225. 
Grapes,  214. 
Grasses,  93. 
Guano,  134. 


INDEX 


381 


Guavas,  225. 
Guernsey  cattle,  317. 
Guinea  fowls,  334. 
Guinea  pigs,  335. 
Gums,  293. 
Gypsum,  129. 

Hair  waste,  129. 
Hampshire  Down  sheep,  328. 
Hard  pan,  24. 
Harrows,  61. 
Hazelnuts,  231. 
Hemp,  117. 
Herbs,  202,  237. 
Heredity,  164. 
Hereford  cattle,  315. 
Hessian  fly,'  185. 
Hickory  nuts,  230. 
Hogs,  322. 

Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  318. 
Homes,  country,  341. 
Hops,  215. 
Horse  radish,  106. 
Horses,  309. 
Horticulture,  192. 
Hotbeds,  193. 
Huckleberry,  209. 
Humus,  31. 

Husbandry,  animal,  303. 
Hybrids,  163. 
Hydrogen,  15,  41. 
Hygroscopic  water,  43,  44. 

Igneous  rocks,  25. 
Insecticides,  180. 
Insects,  179. 
Institutes,  350. 
Interurban  car,  347. 
Iron,  40. 
Irrigation,  47. 
Istle,  119. 

Jersey  cattle,  317. 
Jute,  118. 

Kainit,  133. 
Kale,  105. 
Kerry  cattle,  319. 
Kohl-rabi,  104. 

Landscape  gardening,  251. 
Layering,  156. 
Leather  meal,  129. 
Legumes,  96. 
Leicester  sheep,  329. 
Lemons,  224. 
Lettuce,  194. 


Light,  285. 
Lignite,  285. 
Lime,  35. 
Limes,  225. 
Lincoln  sheep,  329. 
Loam,  30,  35. 

Macadam  roads,  271. 

Magnesium,  39. 

Maguey,  119. 

Manganese,  40. 

Mangel-wurzel,  104. 

Mango,  226. 

Manila  fiber,  118. 

Manure,  130. 

Market  gardening,  192. 

Marl,  129, 

Merino  sheep,  326. 

Mice,  188. 

Millets,  95. 

Milk,  320, 

Mineral  matter,  293. 

Molds,  168. 

Moles,  188. 

Moth,  codling,  184. 

Muck,  129. 

Mulberries,  209. 

Mules,  309. 

Muskmelon,  199. 

National  Commission,  248. 
Nectarines,  220. 
Nitrates,  132. 

Nitrifying  bacteria,  96,  170 
Nitrogen,  15,  111. 
Nodules,  96,  97,  170. 
Nut  crops,  229. 
Nutritive  ratio,  294. 

Oats,  85. 

Oiled  roads,  273. 

Okra,  200. 

Olives,  222. 

Onions,  195. 

Oranges,  223. 

Ostrich,  334. 

Oxford  Down  sheep,  328. 

Oxygen,  40. 

Papaw,  227. 
Parcels  post,  346. 
Parsnips,  107. 
Pastures,  93. 
Peach  leaf  curl,  172. 
Peaches,  219. 
Peafowls,  334. 
Peanuts,  102. 


382 

Pears,  219. 
Peas,  93. 
Peat,  129,  285. 
Pecans,  230. 
Pentose,  293. 
Pepper,  200,  216. 
Percheron  horses,  311. 
Percolation,  46. 
Perennials,  237. 
Persimmons,  227. 
Petals,  142. 
Petroleum,  288. 
Phosphates,  133. 
Phosphorus,  41. 
Pineapples,  227. 
Pistil,  143. 
Plank  roads,  270. 
Plant,  63. 
Plantain,  177. 
Plow,  59. 
Plowing,  61. 
Plums,  220. 

Poland  China  hogs,  323. 
Polled  Durhams,  315. 
Pollen,  143. 
Pollination,  143. 
Pony  breeds,  312. 
Postal  savings  banks,  346. 
Potash,  132. 
Potassium,  39. 
Potato  beetle,  182. 
Potato  blight,  173. 
Potatoes,  108. 
Sweet,  110. 
Potato  scab,  173. 
Poultry,  331. 
Prairie  dogs,  188. 
Propagation,  148. 
Proteids,  291. 
Protein,  292. 
Pruning,  161. 
Pumpkins,  199. 
Purity  of  seed,  148. 

Quince,  222. 

Rabbits,  187,  336. 
Radish,  105. 
Ragweed,  176. 
Rainfall,  21. 
Ramie,  118. 
Rape,  106. 
Raspberry,  207. 
Rations,  295. 
Rats,  188. 

Red-polled  cattle,  315. 
Rhizome,  237. 


INDEX 


Rhubarb,  197. 
Rice,  87. 
Roads,  266. 
Root  crops,  104. 
Root  stocks,  108. 
Rotation,  124. 
Rural  mail,  344. 
Rust,  171. 
Rye,  87. 


Salsify,  107. 

Salt,  129. 

Sand,  30,  35. 

Sand  clay  roads,  270. 

San  Jose  scale,  185. 

School  gardens,  242. 

School  grounds,  245. 

Schoolhouses,  245. 

Schools,  rural,  342. 

Sedentary  soils,  25. 

Seed,  148. 

Sepals,  142. 

Sheep,  breeds  of,  325. 

Shell-rock  roads,  270. 

Shetland  ponies,  312. 

Shorthorn  «attle,  315. 

Shropshire  sheep,  327. 

Shrubs,  235. 

Silicon,  40. 

Silk,  120. 

Silo,  92. 

Sirup,  90. 

Sisal,  118. 

Smut,  171. 

Sodium,  39. 

Soil  moisture,  43. 

Soils,  classes  of,  25,  34. 

Soil  temperature,  38,  45. 

Sorghum,  89. 

Southdown  sheep,  324. 

Soy  beans,  100. 

Spinach,  194. 

Squash,  199. 

Squirrels,  335. 

Stable  manure,  130. 

Stamen,  143. 

Starch,  64,  292. 

Stigma,  143. 

Strawberry,  208. 

Style,  143. 

Subsoil,  24. 

Suffolk  hogs,  322. 

Sugar,  293. 

Sugar  cane,  89. 

Sulphur,  41. 

Sunlight,  16. 


INDEX 


383 


Sussex  cattle,  316. 
Sweet  potatoes,  110. 
Swine,  322. 
Swiss  cattle,  316. 
Sylvinit,  133. 

Tables  Food,  355. 
Tampico,  119. 
Tamworth  hogs,  325. 
Tea  growing,  202. 
Telephones,  347. 
Telford  road,  272. 
Tent  caterpillar,  183. 
Thistles,  175. 
Tile  drain,  51. 
Tillage,  56. 
Toad,  189. 
Tobacco,  204. 
Tobacco  worm,  183. 
Tomatoes,  197. 
Tools,  59. 
Transpiration,  46. 
Transported  soils,  26. 
Tree  planting,  264. 
Tubercle,  96,  97,  170. 
Tuber  crops,  66,  108. 
Tubers,  236. 
Turkeys,  332. 
Turnips,  104. 


Vanilla,  216. 
Variation,  158. 
Vegetable  gardening,  192. 
Velvet  bean,  102. 
Ventilation  of  soils,  52. 
Vetches,  29. 
Victoria  hogs,  322. 
Vines,  238. 

Walnuts,  230. 

Water,  20,  43. 

Watermelon,  198. 

Weather  service,  348. 

Weeds,  173. 

West  Highland  cattle,  316. 

Wheat,  77. 

Wilt,  173. 

Wind-blown  soils,  27. 

Window  gardens,  239. 

Wolff-Lehman   feeding   standards,    295; 

355. 

Wonderberry,  208. 
Wood,  285. 
Wood  ashes,  129. 
Wool,  121. 

Yam,  109. 

Yeast,  170. 

Yorkshire  hogs,  323,  325. 


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